Communication between forest scientists and forest policy-makers in Europe — A survey on both sides of the science/policy interface

Improving communication in the science/policy interface has received increased attention from scientists and policy-makers in recent years. This paper discusses recent science/policy interface literature and reports on the results of two surveys, sent out to forest scientists and forest policy-makers, asking them to evaluate communication in the forest science/policy interface in Europe. The questionnaires are based on a model of the communication process between scientists and policy-makers which was developed for this study, comprising information sources, channels, types and topics of information. The results indicate that policy-makers and scientists largely share the same ideas on how they should communicate with each other. However, the results also show that policy-makers' expectations from science differ from scientists' estimations on what policy-makers consider relevant topics of scientific information. Another result of the study is that scientists and policy-makers give largely the same suggestions for improving communication in the science/policy interface.     

Outline and examples for integrated evaluations of data from the intensive (Level II) monitoring of forest ecosystems in Germany

Data are collected at plots of the intensive forest monitoring programme (Level II monitoring) in Germany by the federal states and stored in a nation-wide database with the main task of contributing to a better understanding of the impacts of air pollutants and other environmental factors on forest ecosystems. Within this feasibility study these data were screened with the intention of outlining a conclusive concept for integrated evaluations. As a permanent challenge of complexly organised monitoring, the necessity of data control measures is underlined and a transparent documentation of univariate properties of key factors and basic relationships is advocated. Besides different statistical analyses, selected, aggregated, and derivative parameters have to undergo substantial check-ups of their information value with respect to risks associated with chemical or physical stress for trees and other biotic compartments of forest ecosystems. Examples of evaluations of different profundity are taken from the domains: crown condition, foliar element concentrations, increment of trees, ground floor vegetation, and chemical condition of the soil solution. Grounded on subject-specific sectoral considerations, concise sets of relevant (key) factors or composite factors should in future approaches—together with results from amending process-oriented modelling—be passed on to construct integrated models against the background of current hypotheses about stress in forest ecosystems, even on the national scale, and on reasonable sub-scales.     

The “German model” of integrative multifunctional forest management—Analysing the emergence and political evolution of a forest management concept

Forest policy and management are subject to various and often conflicting demands, which internationally have led to distinct policy responses and related management paradigms. These range from a strong focus on commodity production complemented by economic rationalities – e.g. focusing on plantations – to community-based or social forestry approaches highlighting local participation and stakeholder engagement, to a focus on ecosystem services and conservation. A major challenge involves the potential orientation of the overall forest policy and management paradigm either towards integrating manifold demands more or less evenly across an area, or towards dividing the land base into forest areas with different management priorities. The specific reconciliation and integration of both sides of the spectrum have been at the centre of scientific and political discussion on forest policy and management for several decades.In this context, the “German model” of integrative and multifunctional forest management has received international attention. It is regarded as an example for integrating diverse (societal and ecological) demands into a timber-production-oriented management approach. At the same time, the model's primary focus on timber production has been criticised by some.In this paper, we analyse the political dimension of the German model by tracing the birth and evolution of the so-called LÖWE programme, a much noticed governmental forest management programme in the German state of Lower Saxony. LÖWE has frequently been presented as a particularly successful example of multifunctional forestry. We first assess the specific societal and political circumstances that led to the establishment of the programme 20 years ago. Subsequently, we assess its political function in forest policy debates about various demands on Lower Saxony's public forests. We show that the evolution of the programme can be interpreted in two distinct but non-exclusive ways. On the one hand, LÖWE was a strategic success story for the Forest Service because it aligned (and also appeased) conflicting demands in line with the changing political priorities. On the other hand, it also embodied a learning process towards environmental policy integration. By underlining LÖWE as an example of the German model of integrative multifunctional forest management, we reiterate the strategic importance of this model in the German context and also highlight future challenges and related research needs.     

Participation and compensation claims in voluntary forest conservation: A case of privately owned forests in Finland

A new market-based voluntary programme aimed at preserving forest habitats on private land has been implemented in Finland. This scheme is based on conservation by fixed-term agreements between forest owners and a governmental authority. In this study we examine the characteristics of forest owners and their properties that indicate the owners' willingness to participate in the programme. In addition, we analyse factors affecting the real compensation claims. The study uses a dual set of data from the pilot project, i.e. one data set supplied by the authority and another collected from the owners involved in the project. The results suggest that to increase the participation rate, information on the conservation project should be targeted in particular to the forest owners who either emphasize financial investment as a motive for forest ownership, have positive attitudes toward nature protection, or own large amounts of forest property. Additionally, owners' positive environmental preferences would decrease and high harvesting value and high ecological quality of a preserved forest stand would increase compensation claims. The voluntary programme could not, however, circumvent owners' strategic behaviour with respect to the claims.     

关于森林工程专业发展的思考

分析影响森工专业发展的主要因素：森工与资源关系、理论技术水平、专业特性。分析目前森工发展现状与趋势：注重可持续发展、科学区划分类经营、多种经营、新技术新产品开发。提出科研是森工专业发展的突破方向，当前应重点加强可持续发展研究、信息化研究和多种经营研制。     

Improving the flow of scientific information across the interface of forest science and policy

The ever-expanding knowledge base of forest science is a challenge for scientists, the public and decision-makers to incorporate into forest policy and management. Scientific assessments have been used as a process to synthesize information on a variety of resource issues, including climatic change. As a process of communication, three attributes of assessments, assessment capacity, stakeholder participation, and articulation of uncertainty, can strongly influence the ability of the assessments to communicate scientific information. The institutional structure of the USDA Forest Service to conduct resource assessments has allowed a sustained effort to conduct periodic synthesis of scientific information and to address new policy issues, such as climate change. The US National Assessment on Climate Variability and Change engaged diverse stakeholders, such as public and private decision-makers, resource and environmental managers, the general public and scientific experts in a broad national and regional dialogue about changes in climate, their impacts, and what can be done to adapt to an uncertain and continuously changing climate. Both the National Assessment and the Third Assessment Report of the International Panel on Climate Change incorporated a language of uncertainty to describe consensus of the scientific community on the report's conclusions. These attributes are important elements of improving the flow of information across the science–policy interface.     

湖南省"长防林"生态效益监测站设计与布局研究

为了全面、科学评价长江防护林工程的综合效益，根据湖南省林业区划和“长防林”生态功能划分的实际情况，建立2个生态效益监测核心站、30个监测点。通过长期监测、计量，使长防林工程的生态效益价值化、数量化；为其它防护林工程的规划设计、生态公益林效益补偿以及公益林经营管理提供科学依据，为政府部门决策提供参考。     

Application of PDA forest fire monitoring based on web service technology

The difficulty in information communication and sharing are major problems for forest fire monitoring and early warning in China. As authors, we applied web service technology to a personal digital assistant (PDA) forest fire monitoring system and propose the framework of a monitoring system based on service-oriented architecture (SOA). At the same time, we describe the composition and function of web services from a server side and a client side. The method for developing a web service invocation engine on the PDA is introduced in detail. Finally, an example of a fire danger rating and fire weather services system are established, based on the Beijing Forest Fire Control System. The results show that the PDA forest fire monitoring system based on web services can effectively take advantage of the existing fire protection decision information services, realize real-time information interaction and sharing, and improve the level of forest fire monitoring. __________ Translated from Journal of Beijing Forestry University, 2008, 30(3): 91–95 [译自: 北京林业大学学报]     

Comparative analysis on the communication strategies of the forest owners' associations in Europe

This research reports a comparative analysis of the communication strategy that forest owners' associations across Europe use to influence society on one side and the decision-makers on the other, in order to fulfill forest owners' interests. 60% of Europe's forests are privately owned by an estimated number of 16 million forest owners, who are represented by forest owners' associations. One of its main functions is to influence the public perceptions on forests and forestry. In this article it is analyzed how a specific forestry stakeholder fixes its strategies to communicate with and lobby society in order to get acceptability for their proposals/demands. Open-end surveys have been used as a source of information in 2006 and repeated in 2012. Besides of the comparison among countries, a comparison along the time has been also performed. The whole communication frame is analyzed, considering the objectives, the structure, the messages, the channels, and the evaluation. The main conclusions that arise are: first, the temporary comparison (2006–2012) results into an improvement in several issues; second, there is room for improvement of professionalization of communication in forest owners' associations in Europe; third, social research into public perception of forestry might help to define communication strategies.     

Effects of presenting forest simulation results on the forest values and attitudes of forestry professionals and other forest users in Central Labrador

This research tested whether demonstration of the long term effect of different forest management scenarios in a large forested area changes people's forest values and attitudes. Forestry professionals and other forest users in Central Labrador were shown simulation results of three alternative forest management scenarios illustrating possible long term effects on various indicators. Forest values and attitudes towards forestry were measured before and after the presentation. Our conception of values and attitudes is based on the cognitive hierarchy model of human behaviour which states that values are more enduring and more difficult to change than attitudes. It was thus hypothesized that attitudes would change but not values and that change in forestry professionals would be less than in other forest users since foresters are trained to think about long-term effects and large-scale processes of forest management scenarios. We also hypothesized that a greater number of people would have an opinion on forest management after the presentation. All three hypotheses were partially supported by the results. The results indicated that some attitude change occurred, but that values also changed somewhat. Most of the significant changes occurred when persons with no clear opinion on several forest-related questions formed an opinion. Long-term, landscape simulation results provide valuable information and enhance understanding of both forestry professionals and other forest users. However, being provided the same information, the two groups learned different things. While forest users gained more confidence in the current forest management plan and were motivated to further participate, professionals learned more specific things. This reflects differences between technical and local knowledge.     

Monitoring and information reporting for sustainable forest management: An international multiple case study analysis

In forest management there has been a proliferation of tools, methods and standards for local-level monitoring and information reporting that has made it difficult for forest managers to promote cost effectiveness, efficiency and confidence building in their day-to-day management. This exploratory study highlights the degree to which 22 case studies, operating in 15 different jurisdictions in North America and Europe, were monitoring and reporting information related to sustainable and adaptive forest management. The results demonstrate a high degree of similarity in forest management practices both within and between different jurisdictions of North America and Europe. They also indicate the potential for greater collaborative research when developing local-level monitoring tools, methods and standards, particularly related to the scale and intensity of forest operations. Finally, they reveal differences in the level of formal monitoring and information reporting being conducted at the smaller scales of forest management when compared to the larger forestry companies. This research suggests that forest management standards need to better reflect the implications of scale and the wider-operating environment of forestry on monitoring and information management practices, particularly when evaluating and comparing ‘best’ practices.     

延边林区天保工程实施后森林生态效益评价体系的建立

延边林区通过实施天保工程,使森林资源得到有效保护,而且成功地调整了林业产业结构。要判定天保工程的实施效果,需要对其进行评价。根据科学性、可比性、可操作性和与政策的相关性相统一的标准,选定了森林覆盖率变化、森林蓄积量变化率、森林面积变化率、天然林面积变化率、水源涵养量变化、水土保持面积变化、湿地面积变化、固定温室气体量变化和释放氧气量变化9个评价指标,建立了森林生态效益评价体系。     

Contribution of large-scale forest inventories to biodiversity assessment and monitoring

Statistically-designed inventories and biodiversity monitoring programs are gaining relevance for biological conservation and natural resources management. Mandated periodic surveys provide unique opportunities to identify and satisfy natural resources management information needs. However, this is not an end in itself but rather is the beginning of a process that should lead to sound decision-making in biodiversity conservation. Forest inventories are currently evolving towards multipurpose resource surveys and are broadening their scope in several directions: (i) expansion of the target population to include non-traditional attributes such as trees outside the forest and urban forests; (ii) forest carbon pools and carbon sequestration estimation; (iii) assessment of forest health; and (iv) inclusion of additional variables such as biodiversity attributes that are not directly related to timber assessment and wood harvesting.There is an on-going debate regarding the role of forest inventories in biodiversity assessment and monitoring. This paper presents a review on the topic that aims at providing updated knowledge on the current contribution of forest inventories to the assessment and monitoring of forest biodiversity conditions on a large scale. Specific objectives are fourfold: (i) to highlight the types of forest biodiversity indicators that can be estimated from data collected in the framework of standard forest inventories and the implications of different sampling methods on the estimation of the indicators; (ii) to outline current possibilities for harmonized estimation of biodiversity indicators in Europe from National Forest Inventory data; (iii) to show the added value for forest biodiversity monitoring of framing biodiversity indicators into ecologically meaningful forest type units; and (iv) to examine the potential of forest inventory sample data for estimating landscape biodiversity metrics.     

Assessing changes in forest fragmentation following infestation using time series Landsat imagery

The current epidemic of mountain pine beetle (Dendroctonus ponderosae Hopkins) in British Columbia, Canada, has impacted an area of over 13 million hectares presenting a considerable challenge to provincial forest resource managers. Remote sensing technologies offer a highly effective tool to monitor this impact due to very large areas involved and its ability to detect dead and dying tree crowns. Conventionally, change detection procedures based upon spectral values have been applied; however, analysis of landscape pattern changes associated with long-time series change detection approaches present opportunities for the generation of unique and ecologically important information. This study is focussed on the detection and monitoring of the shape and area characteristics of lodgepole pine stands during mountain pine beetle infestation to quantify the progression of forest fragmentation and related loss of landscape connectivity. A set of landscape pattern indices were applied to a set of images consisting of six Landsat satellite images spanning the period from 1993 to 2006. Our results indicate that the impacts of the mountain pine beetle infestation on forest spatial pattern consist of an increase in the number of patches, an increase in forest patch shape complexity, a reduction in forest patch size, an increase in forest patch isolation, and a decrease in interspersion. These findings demonstrate the unique information available from long-time series satellite imagery combined with pattern analysis to better understand the combined effects of insect infestation and forest salvage and harvesting.     

Indirect methods of large-scale forest biomass estimation

Forest biomass and its change over time have been measured at both local and large scales, an example for the latter being forest greenhouse gas inventories. Currently used methodologies to obtain stock change estimates for large forest areas are mostly based on forest inventory information as well as various factors, referred to as biomass factors, or biomass equations, which transform diameter, height or volume data into biomass estimates. However, while forest inventories usually apply statistically sound sampling and can provide representative estimates for large forest areas, the biomass factors or equations used are, in most cases, not representative, because they are based on local studies. Moreover, their application is controversial due to the inconsistent or inappropriate use of definitions involved. There is no standardized terminology of the various factors, and the use of terms and definitions is often confusing. The present contribution aims at systematically summarizing the main types of biomass factors (BF) and biomass equations (BE) and providing guidance on how to proceed when selecting, developing and applying proper factors or equations to be used in forest biomass estimation. The contribution builds on the guidance given by the IPCC (Good practice guidance for land use, land-use change and forestry, 2003) and suggests that proper application and reporting of biomass factors and equations and transparent and consistent reporting of forest carbon inventories are needed in both scientific literature and the greenhouse gas inventory reports of countries.

浙江莲都区公益林森林类型动态变化研究

利用莲都区2004年界定的3.5万hm2重点公益林于2001年和2011年的规划调查和监测复查数据进行对比分析,结果表明,针叶林面积以每年2.5%速度向其它森林类型转变,面积比重由77%调整到58%;单位面积蓄积量年均净增率针叶林6.1%阔叶林3.5%针阔混交林2.4%;郁闭度≥0.5的林分面积由67.3%提高到92.6%,成过熟林的面积由9.1%提高到30.9%,提高幅度针叶林针阔混交林阔叶林。基于分析出的动态变化特征,为公益林下步按森林类型分类建设与管理提供科学依据。     

Forest science and forest policy in the Americas: building bridges to a sustainable future

Making forest policies that help bridge from the current situation to a sustainable future requires sound scientific information. Too often, scientific information is available, yet policy makers do not use it. At a workshop in Costa Rica, attendees from the Americas reviewed 16 case studies where forest science influenced forest policies and identified six reasons. Two reasons related to the content of research programs and four to personal characteristics of researchers. Research programs that practice continuous innovation and adaptive management retained their relevancy to policy makers. Market-based and incentive approaches work better than regulatory ones, so economic and social sciences are critical parts of the research portfolio. Key attributes of influential scientists include an understanding of the policy process and how it differs from the science process; a willingness to engage in the policy arena and bear the associated risks; an adeptness at communicating early and often, matching the means and message to various audiences; and a penchant for collaboration that builds the trust essential to influence policy.     

Assessing the effect of public involvement processes in forest management in Quebec

Despite the proliferation of public involvement initiatives in the forest sector, methodologies for monitoring the success of individual processes have been particularly weak. Assessments have traditionally examined the outward appearance of public involvement processes rather than what they accomplish. The aim of our research project was to develop a method for assessing the impact of public involvement processes in Quebec, and to test this method in the context of forest certification initiatives. More precisely, the research project determined that the public involvement processes tested in the Haute-Mauricie region, Quebec (Canada): (1) fostered better information sharing among parties interested in forest management; (2) brought about changes in forestry planning; (3) decreased mistrust between local stakeholders; and (4) reduced potential negative conflicts in this region. However, the experiment also showed that further institutional support should complement a public involvement initiative in order to increase its impact on forest management planning and on the relationships among parties interested in forest management.     

Catalyst for innovation in European forest policy sciences. Evaluation of the EFI Research Program 3: policy analysis

The performance of program area 3 policy analysis has been evaluated during the decade since 1994. The program area has promoted and conducted 16 major projects covering a wide range of topics of forest policy and published seven working papers, three reviewed research reports and nine proceedings. The strength of the program area does not lie in conducting research by its own small resources, but in networking throughout Europe, the program area 3 became a catalyst for innovation in forest policy research done in co-operation with member research institutions. By networking, innovative topics have been promoted and the social science-based analysis of forest policy have been strengthened. Seminars with participants from all over Europe disseminated the scientific findings among researchers and stakeholders. Open networking was especially successful in integrating forest policy researchers from countries with economies in transition. Future challenges are research in European integration and comparative projects in forest policy. Furthermore, program area 3 could gather the European potential of researchers to foster the discipline forest policy science in the future.     

Nontimber forest products and biodiversity management in the Pacific Northwest

Nontimber forest product harvesting in the Pacific Northwest is neither a new activity nor a disappearing relic of the pre-industrial era. Though the emphasis may have shifted from subsistence to commercial and recreational pursuits, harvesting and harvesters of wild species are still widespread throughout the region. Hundreds of businesses and thousands of harvesters earn part or all of their income from the harvests. Every year thousands of pounds and hundreds of nontimber forest products valued in the hundreds of millions of dollars are harvested from regional public and private forests. This harvesting of a large diversity of species represents a considerable subset of the overall terrestrial biodiversity in Pacific Northwest forests. Despite widespread extraction, little investment in research, planning, or basic inventorying and monitoring has been done on nontimber forest products. Without better information, land managers will be increasingly unable to make informed decisions on how to manage nontimber forest product biodiversity sustainably as demand for products increases.