Response of Cape gooseberry (Physalis peruviana L.) to nitrogen application under sandy soil conditions

The effect of different nitrogen (N) levels on growth and productivity of Cape gooseberry, cultivated in new reclaimed lands (sandy soil) at Nubaria region in Egypt, was investigated. Nitrogen levels were applied at rates of 50, 100, 150 and 200?kg?N?ha^?1 as ammonium sulfate. The amount of??N for each treatment was divided into five applications (after transplanting, seven days later, at the beginning of flowering, during fruit set and after the first harvest). Several growth parameters and yield were recorded in addition to nitrogen content in leaves. The results revealed that Cape gooseberry plants responded positively to nitrogen levels in sandy soils. Yield, number of fruits, and diameter of fruits increased significantly by increasing the nitrogen level up to 200?kg?N?ha^?1. Moreover, plant height, number of leaves, N-content in leaves and N-uptake shows a positive reaction to increased nitrogen supply. The quantitative effects of nitrogen on Cape gooseberry plants and the possible explanations of plant responses are discussed.     

Seed dormancy,germination, emergence and seed longevity in Galinsoga parviflora and G. quadriradiata

Galinsoga quadriradiata (hairy galinsoga) and Galinsoga parviflora (smallflower galinsoga, gallant soldier) are very troublesome weeds in many vegetable row crops in Europe. To optimise management strategies for Galinsoga spp. control, an in‐depth study of germination biology was performed. Germination experiments were conducted to evaluate the impact of light and alternating temperatures on germination of a large set of Galinsoga populations. Seedling emergence was investigated by burying seeds at different depths in a sandy and sandy loam soil. Dormancy of fresh seeds harvested in autumn was evaluated by studying germination response in light at 25/20°C with and without nitrate addition. Seed longevity was investigated in an accelerated ageing experiment by exposing seeds to 45°C and 100% relative humidity. Galinsoga spp. seeds required light for germination; light dependency varied among populations. Seedling emergence decreased drastically with increasing burial depth. Maximum depth of emergence varied between 4 and 10 mm depending on soil type and population. In a sandy soil, emergence percentages were higher and seedlings were able to emerge from greater depths than in a sandy loam soil. Freshly produced G. parviflora seeds, harvested in autumn, showed a varying but high degree of primary dormancy and were less persistent than G. quadriradiata seeds that lack primary dormancy. Lack of primary dormancy of freshly harvested G. quadriradiata seeds and light dependency for germination may be used to optimise and develop Galinsoga management strategies.     

Chemical manipulation of weed emergence

Field studies were conducted over a 4-year period to determine whether weed emergence could be increased by incorporating germination stimulants into the soil. Sodium azide (4.5–36 kg azide ha^?1), ammonium nitrate (34–67 kg nitrate ha^?1), and butylate (0.2–0.4 kg ai ha^?1) were used. Sodium azide was the most consistent stimulant of indigenous weed emergence over all experiments and seasons, but there was great variability in its effects and the highest application rate sometimes inhibited emergence. Consistent stimulation of broad-leaf weed emergence occurred following September applications of 4–5 kg azide ha^?1 of sodium azide. Sodium azide at 4.5 kg azide ha^?1 increased grass plus broad-leaf weed emergence 43% based on summer applications in three growing seasons. No general recommendation for stimulating the emergence of weeds can be made because stimulation was a function of rate of application, season of the year, and post-treatment environment. Influence de traitments chimiques sur la levée des mauvaises herbes Des études portant sur une durée de quatre ans ont été conduites afin de déterminer si l'incorporation dans le sol de stimulants de germination pouvait augmenter la levée des mauvaises herbes. Les produits essayés ont été le nitrure de sodium (4, 5–36 kg de nitrure ha^?1), le nitrate d'ammonium (34–67 kg nitrate ha^?1), et le butylate (0, 2–0, 4 kg ma ha^?1). C'est avec le nitrure de sodium que la stimulation de la levée des graines en place a été observée le plus régulièrement, au cours de plusieurs expériences effectuées en différentes saisons; cependant, une grande variabilité de l'effet de ce produit a été notée, et les doses d'application les plus élevées ont parfois inhibé les levées. Appliqué en septembre à la dose de 4, 5 kg nitrure ha^?1, le nitrure de sodium stimule d'une manière régulière la levée des dicotylédones. Des traitements d'été opérés durant trois années ont montré qu'à cette dose, il augmente la levée des mono et des dicotylédones de 43%. Il n'est cependant pas possible de donner des recommandations générales pour la stimulation des levées de mauvaises herbes, car cette stimulation dépend de la dose appliquée, de la saison pendant laquelle elle est opérée, et des conditions qui régnent après le traitement. Chemische Beeinflussung des Auflaufens von Unkräutern In einer über vier Jahre laufenden Feldstudie wurde untersucht, ob durch das Einarbeiten von Keimungsstimulatoren das Auflaufen von Unkräutern beschleunigt werden kann. Zu die-sem Zweck wurden Natriumazid (4, 5–36 kg azid ha^?1), Ammoniumnitrat (34–67 kg nitrat ha^?1) und Butylat (0, 2–0, 4 kg ai ha^?1) verwendet. Natriumazid war in allen Versuchen das am regelmässigsten wirksame Auflaufstimulans für die an den verschiedenen Standorten vorkommenden Unkräuter, wobei die höchsten Applikationsraten hin und wieder das Auflaufen hemmten. Applikationen von 4, 5 kg azid ha^?1 Natriumazid im September erhöhten die Auflaufrate regelmässig; sie wurde in drei Vegetations-perioden bei grasartigen und breitblättrigen Unkräutern um 43%, vergleichen mit den Sommerapplikationen, gesteigert. Es kann keine all-gemein gültige Anwendungsempfehlung gegeben werden, da der Stimulationseffekt stark von Dosierung, Jahreszeit und den Umweltsbedingungen nach der Applikation abhängt.     

Effect of sodium 2,2,3,3-tetrafluoropropionate on the germination, emergence, growth and survival of pasture species

The effect of sodium 2,2,3,3-tetrafluoropropionate (tetrapion) on the germination, emergence, growth and survival of pasture species was ascertained in petri-dishes (21 days) and in soil (114 days). Tetrapion was applied with the water in the petri-dishes and to the soil surface prior to sowing seeds 2-mm deep in plastic-lined glasshouse trays. The rates applied in the petri-dishes were 0,0.093, 0.187, 0.375, 0.75 and 1.5 kg a.i. ha^?1; the same rates, except 0.093 kg a.i. ha^?1, were applied in the glasshouse. In the petri-dishes tetrapion did not affect germination rate nor germination capacity of any species. However, it severely reduced shoot growth (22–78% for the lowest and highest rate, respectively) and moderately reduced root growth per seedling (4–44% for lowest and highest rate). In the glasshouse trays, lower emergence, at 27 days, of five of the sown species on the 1.5 kg a.i. ha^?1 treatment compared with the control, was explained by depression of shoot growth. Emergence was not affected at any other rate. Between day 27 and day 114 there was a progressive decline in the number of living seedlings of all species; the magnitude of deaths increased with time and rate of tetrapion. The rating of species for tolerance to tetrapion was: Medicago sativa > Festuca arundinacea > Dactylis glomerata > Phalaris aquatica > Eragrostis curvula. Although Trifolium subterraneum seedlings survived low rates of tetrapion they were still affected at day 114 whereas seedlings of other species were recovering. As tetrapion is readily leached from the soil profile, desirable species must be sown after sufficient rain has fallen to wash it from the soil. In this way it is possible to kill weed seedlings that germinate soon after spraying as well as to establish improved species.     

Effects of fluazifop-butyl on shoot growth and rhizome buds of Elymus repens (L.) Gould

A series of glasshouse experiments was conducted to evaluate the activity of fluazifop-butyl, butyl 2-[4-(5-trifluoromethyl-2-pyridyloxy)phenoxy] propionate, against Elymus repens. Foliar applications of doses 0·25–1·0 kg ha^?1 consistently gave better control than did soil applications. The most obvious phytotoxic symptoms were chlorosis and necrosis, beginning with the youngest leaves 5–6 days after spraying, which spread to all leaves within 2 weeks. Translocation was measured by defoliating plants at different times after spraying and assessing regrowth and by evaluating rhizome-bud viability. At low doses (0·125 and 0·25 kg ha^?1) translocation to rhizomes occurred mainly between 6 and 48 h. When fluazifop-butyl was sprayed at a dose range of 0·125–1·0 kg ha^?1, at least 90% of the rhizome buds had accumulated a lethal dose within 72 h of spraying. In another experiment, with a dose of 0·25 kg ha^?1, 31, 72 and 92% of rhizome buds were found to be non-viable when sampled 2, 24 and 48 h respectively after spraying. At 1·0 kg ha^?1 all the buds had accumulated sufficient herbicide to prevent sprouting 48 h after spraying.     

Studies of the mechanism of action of asulam in plants. Part I: Antagonistic interaction of asulam and 4-aminobenzoic acid

Studies have been carried out on the herbicidal action of asulam [methyl (4-aminophenylsulphonyl)carbamate] and sulphanilamide, alone or in association either with 4-aminobenzoic acid (4ABA) or 4, 6-diamino-1-(3, 4-dichlorophenyl)-1, 2-dihydro-2, 2-dimethyl-1,3,5-triazine (DCDT). The soaking of wheat seeds (Triticum estivum L.) for 12 h at 30°C in asulam and DCDT in a 10:1 ratio doubled the inhibition of root growth produced by soaking in asulam alone; the addition of 4ABA partially reversed the activity of asulam. Foliar applications of a mixture of asulam + DCDT (1.1 + 0.55 kg ha^?1) markedly increased the activity of asulam in susceptible wheat, wild oat (Avena fatua L.), tolerant flax (Linum usitatissimum L.), and in Stellaria media L. The activity of asulam at 1.1 kg ha^?1 was reversed by 4ABA at 2.2 kg ha^?1 by about 50% in wheat and wild oat, 82% in flax and 100% in S. media. The results indicate that asulam and sulphanilamide act by similar mechanisms in apparently inhibiting the biosynthesis of folic acid.     

Herbicide-resistant crops: yield penalties and weed thresholds for oilseed rape (Brassica napus L.)

An expérimental procedure was designed to provide a simple model for types of analyses necessary to determine weed density thresholds for advantageous use of crop plants engineered for herbicide resistance. Oilseed rape (Brassica napus L., cv. Tower) biotypes resistant (RES) and susceptible (SUS) to atrazine were used as model crop plants, and wild oat (Avena fatua L.) was used as the model weed. Along a wild oat density gradient equivalent to 0–128 plants m^?2, RES plants consistently experienced biomass and yield reductions of approximately 10–20% compared to SUS plants. When atrazine was applied at 1.5 kg ha^?1 to control wild oats competing with RES plants, RES biomasses and yields were stabilized at the same level as that where 25–30 wild oats m^?2 reduce yields of SUS plants. This implies that with wild oat densities of 25–30 plants m^?2, it becomes agronomically advantageous to crop with RES plants plus atrazine rather than to crop with higher-yielding SUS plants.     

Growth behaviour and leaf morphology of Philippine strains of Sphenoclea zeylanica showing differential response to 2,4-D

The germination and growth of three strains of gooseweed (Sphenoclea zeylanica Gaertn.) that showed susceptibility, moderate susceptibility, and tolerance for foliar-applied 2,4-D isobutyl ester were studied in the laboratory and greenhouse. The plants were isolated from samples collected from major rice (Oryza sativa L.) growing areas in the Philippines. The seeds of all three strains possessed dormancy; light stimulated germination but did not completely overcome dormancy. Without N application, stem elongation and leaf production did not differ among the strains. With 60 kg N ha^?1, the susceptible and moderately susceptible strains responded better than the tolerant strain, the difference being apparent at 6 weeks after emergence. Measurements of the leaf cuticle showed significant differences among the strains starting at the 8- to the 10-leaf stage, a trend that paralleled their response to 2,4-D. Adding a surfactant to the spray formulation nullified the differential responses. Implications for managing the weed and correlations with current field observations are discussed.     

Response of weeds to application of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium on low-fertility acid soils in Suriname

The effect of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium on the growth of weeds was studied at two locations on low-fertility acid soils in Suriname. Nitrogen stimulated the growth of weeds in terms of ground-cover and weight on a loamy sand of comparatively low fertility, as well as on a sandy loam of higher fertility. Phosphorus ultimately only stimulated ground-cover development and growth on the sandy loam, and interacted positively with nitrogen on that soil. Potassium had no effect on weed weight, but at both locations the number of plants increased with application of K. Differences in the amount of weed growth between the two locations were related to differences in the composition of the weed flora. On the sandy loam with application of 50 kg N, 50 kg P and 40 kg K ha^?1, nutrient uptake by the weeds was 72 kg N, 10 kg P and 121 kg K ha^? over a period of 35 days. Réponse des adventices à l'application d'azote, phosphore et potassium sur des sols pauvres acides au Surinam En deux lieux du Surinam avec des sols pauvres acides, l'effet de l'azote, du phosphore et du potassium sur la croissance des adventices a étéétudié. L'azote a stimulé la croissance des adventices en terme de couverture du sol et de poids sur un sable limoneux relativement pauvre aussi bien que sur un limon sableux de plus grande fertilité. Le phosphore a finalement seulement stimulé le développement et la croissance sur le limon sableux et il y a eu une interaction positive avec l'azote. Le potassium n'a pas eu d'effet sur le poids des adventices, mais dans les deux situations le nombre de plantes a augmenté avec l'application de K. Les différences dans la quantité de mauvaises herbes entre les deux situations étaient liées aux différences dans la composition de la flore adventice. Sur le limon sableux avec une application de 50 kg d'azote, 50 kg de phosphore et 40 kg de potasse à l'hectare, l'absorption par les adventices a été en 35 jours de 72 kg N, 10 kg P et 121 kg K à l'hectare. Wirkung einer Stickstoff-, Phosphor- und Kaliumdüngung auf die Verunkrautung ertragarmer, saurer Böden in Surinam An 2 Orten mit ertragarmen, sauren Böden in Surinam wurde die Wirkung einer Stickstoff-, Phosphor- und Kaliumdüngung auf das Wachstum von Unkräutern untersucht. Stickstoff förderte das Wachstum von Unkräutern (Bodendeckung, Biomasse) sowohl auf einem verhältnismäßig ertragarmen lehmigen Sand als auch auf einem ertragreicheren sandigen Lehm. Phosphor förderte letzten Endes Deckungsgrad und Wachstum nur auf dem sandigen Lehm und wirkte da positiv mit Stickstoff zusammen. Kalium hatte keine Wirkung auf die Biomasse, aber an beiden Orten führte es zu einer größeren Pflanzendichte. Die Wachstumsunterschiede an den beiden Orten hingen von der Zusammensetzung der Unkrautflora ab. Auf dem sandigen Lehm betrug bei 50 kg N, 50 kg P und 40 kg K ha^?1 die Nährstoffaufnahme der Unkräuter 72 kg N, 10 kg P und 121 kg K ha^?1 innerhalb 35 Tagen.     

Impact of Irrigation Timing and Weed Management Practices on Chlorophyll Content and Morphological Traits of Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum Mill.)

Weeds are a major biotic constraint; compete with crop for the same resources and ultimately reduce productivity. This study evaluated the impact of irrigation intervals and weed management treatments on chlorophyll content and morphological growth of tomato to find an appropriate integrated weed management strategy. Two-year field experiments (2018/2019) were conducted at district Mardan (34°15′38″ N and 72°6′36″ E). Tomato F1 hybrid (Taj?3592) was transplanted during March. The experiments were laid out in a randomized complete-block design in split-plot arrangement with three replications. The main block comprised three irrigation intervals (3, 6, and 9 days) and the sub-block included weed management treatments: transparent polythene, black polythene, weeding except Orobanche, sole weeding of Orobanche, weeding of all weeds, copper oxychloride 1.5?kg a.i ha^?1 (single dose), copper oxychloride 1.5?kg a.i ha^?1 (split doses), copper oxychloride?+?humic acid 25?kg ha^?1 (single dose), copper oxychloride?+?humic acid 25?kg ha^?1 (split doses), copper sulphate 2?kg ha^?1 (single dose), copper sulphate 2?kg ha^?1 (split doses), ammonium sulphate 200?kg ha^?1 (single dose), ammonium sulphate 200?kg ha^?1 (split doses), pendimethalin 33 EC 1.44?kg a.i ha^?1, glyphosate 48 SL 1.5?kg a.i ha^?1, and weedy check. Lowest relative weed density (RWD) of O. cernua (2.23%) and highest RWD of O. cernua (38.01%) were recorded in the 3? and 9?day irrigation intervals, respectively. However, 3?day irrigation interval resulted in highest fresh weed biomass (5794?kg ha^?1). Moreover, the 6?day irrigation interval significantly increased chlorophyll content by 11 and 5%, leaf area by 23 and 6%, and number of branches plant^?1 by 30 and 22% compared to 9? and 3?day irrigation intervals, respectively. Among the weed management treatments, black polythene resulted in the highest weed control efficiency (96%), increasing chlorophyll content by 16%, leaf area by 33%, and number of branches plant^?1 by 64% vs. weedy check. Consequently, 6?day irrigation intervals?×?black polythene could be the best weed management strategy, followed by transparent polythene, weeding of all weeds, pendimethalin, glyphosate, and ammonium sulphate.

     

Effect of nitrogen fertilizer application on growth, biomass production and N-uptake of torpedograss (Panicum repens L.)

A glasshouse study was conducted to evaluate the effects of different rates (0, 50, 100, 200 and 400 kg ha^?1) of nitrogen (N) fertilizer application on the growth, biomass production and N‐uptake efficiency of torpedograss. The growth responses of torpedograss to the N application were significant throughout the observation periods. Torpedograss grown for 60 days obtained the highest total biomass of 23.0 g plant^?1 with an application of 200 kg ha^?1 N, followed by 20.4 g plant^?1 with an application of 100 kg ha^?1 N; when it was grown for 90 days a significantly higher biomass of 102.3–106.0 g plant^?1 was obtained with the 200–400 kg ha^?1 N than the biomass (68.0 g plant^?1) obtained with the fertilizer applied at a lower rate. When the torpedograss was grown for 130 days the highest biomass was 230.0 g plant^?1 with the 400 kg ha^?1 N application, followed by a biomass of 150.0 g plant^?1 with the 200 kg ha^?1 N application, but the above‐ground shoot in all treatments was over mature for animal food. The ratio of the above‐ground shoot to the underground part increased with the increase in N application up to 400 kg ha^?1 during the 90 days after planting (DAP), but the above‐ground shoot biomass was the same with the 200 and 400 kg ha^?1 N. The agronomic efficiency of the N application decreased to 5–38 with the increase in N application to 400 kg ha^?1, which was less than half the agronomic efficiency with the 200 kg ha^?1 N. The agronomic efficiency of N was very low (5–22) during the 60 DAP, which indicated that the N application would not be economically viable in this period for torpedograss as a pasture, and short‐duration plants could be cultivated in torpedograss‐infested fields to minimize weed‐crop competition. The nitrogen concentration (%) in the torpedograss increased with the increase in N application, but N‐uptake efficiency was the opposite and the value was very low with the 400 kg ha^?1 N. The above results lead us to conclude that the N application rate of 200 kg ha^?1 is the most effective for torpedograss growth.     

EFFECTS OF ANNUAL DRESSINGS OF NITROGEN FERTILIZER ON WILD OAT INFESTATIONS

Nitrogen fertilizer in three forms, urea, sulphate of ammonia and calcium ammonium nitrate, was applied at three rates, 26, 52 and 104 kg N/ha, early (January) and late (May) during land preparation for three consecutive barley crops, to determine the effect of fertilization on wild oat populations. On the fertilized areas there was significantly greater germination of wild oats prior to sowing than on the unfertilized areas, with calcium ammonium nitrate and sulphate of ammonia tending to be more effective in stimulating germination than urea. Despite the destruction of these heavy populations of wild oat seedlings by cultivation prior to sowing, in-crop infestations of the weed were still heavy. Late-applied nitrogen by comparison with the early application tended to produce greater numbers of wild oat panicles in the crop, particularly at the lower fertilizer rates. The overall effect after three annual dressings of nitrogen was one of greatly increased wild oat seed reserves in the soil. These had increased five-fold in no-nitrogen plots, six-fold in early-fertilized plots and eight-fold in late-fertilized plots. It was concluded that annual dressings of nitrogen fertilizer on winter cereals in wild-oat-infested areas led to an increase in the population of the weed. Some suggestions are made as to why nitrogen fertilizer stimulated wild oats to germinate, and the overall results are discussed in the light of the agricultural situation of the Darling Downs.     

Germination, emergence, and dormancy of Mimosa pudica

Mimosa pudica (common sensitive plant) is a problematic weed in many crops in tropical countries. Eight experiments were conducted to determine the effects of light, seed scarification, temperature, salt and osmotic stress, pH, burial depth, and rice residue on the germination, seedling emergence, and dormancy of M. pudica seeds. Scarification released the seeds from dormancy and stimulated germination, though the germination of the scarified seeds was not influenced by light. The scarification results indicate that a hard seed coat is the primary mechanism that restricts germination. The germination increased markedly with the exposure to high temperature "pretreatment" (e.g. 150°C), which was achieved by placing non-scarified seeds in an oven for 5 min followed by incubation at 35/25°C day/night temperatures for 14 days. The germination of the scarified seeds was tolerant of salt and osmotic stress, as some seeds germinated even at 250 mmol L⁻¹ NaCl (23%) and at an osmotic potential of −0.8 MPa (5%). The germination of the scarified seeds was >74% over a pH range of 5–10. The seedling emergence of the scarified seeds was 73–88% at depths of 0–2 cm and it gradually decreased with an increasing depth, with no seedling emergence at the 8 cm depth. The rice residue applied to the soil surface at rates of ≤6 t ha⁻¹ did not influence the seedling emergence and dry weight. The information gained from this study identifies some of the factors that facilitate M. pudica becoming a widespread weed in the humid tropics and might help in developing components of integrated weed management practises to control this weed.     

Effects of Aglaia odorata granules on the seedling growth of major maize weeds and the influence of soil type on the granule residue's efficacy

This study was undertaken to explore the potential of Aglaia odorata Lour. granules in various soil types (sand, sandy loam and clay) at 0.25, 0.5 and 1 t ai ha^?1 to inhibit two major maize weeds, Digitaria adscendens and Trianthema portulacastrum L., in an experimental greenhouse. The results indicated that the emergence and seedling growth of both weeds were inhibited but varied with the soil type: the inhibitory effect of the A. odorata granules was stronger when applied in sand, followed by sandy loam and clay. The weed species responded differently to the A. odorata granule application. Generally, the inhibitory effect was greater for D. adscendens than for T. portulacastrum. Additionally, the potential of the A. odorata granules for weed control in maize field plots was evaluated. The three major weeds that were found in the experimental field were D. adscendens, T. portulacastrum and Amaranthus gracilis. The highest A. odorata granule dose (1 t ai ha^?1) had a significant inhibitory effect on the emergence and growth of all of the weed species and their emergence was reduced by 96.7%, 47.2% and 56.2%, respectively, compared with the control treatment (unweeded). The dry weight of the weeds was reduced in a similar manner to their emergence. In contrast, the emergence of maize was not affected by any of the A. odorata granule applications. Rather, at an application rate of 1 t ai ha^?1, the maize yield increased significantly and the effect was similar to that observed with an atrazine herbicide application under field conditions.     

Chemical control of nodding thistle (Carduus nutans L.) in New Zealand pastures

Broadcast sprays of several herbicides were applied at different times of the year at several sites in Hawkes Bay, Canterbury and Otago. For good thistle control, date of application was more important than types of herbicide. In Hawkes Bay, applications made in April, May and June tended to be the most effective. Under slightly cooler Canterbury conditions, April, September and October were the best application dates. In the Otago trials, spring emergence of thistle seedlings meant that the most consistent results came from September or October applications. At all sites, applications made in July or August were relatively ineffective, probably because of low winter temperatures and slow thistle growth rates. MCPA (potassium salt) at 1·0 kg ha^?1 was the standard herbicide used in all experiments. MCPA at 0·5 kg ha^?1, MCPB (sodium salt) at 0·5 and 1·0 kg ha^?1 and 2,4-D at 0·5 kg ha^?1 did not kill as many thistles as MCPA at 1·0 kg ha^?1. MCPA at 1·5 kg ha^?1 and MCPB (butyl) ester + clopyralid at 0·5 + 0·015 or 1·0+0·03 kg ha^?1 gave consistently better control than MCPA at 1·0 kg ha^?1 2,4-D at 1·0 or 1·5 kg ha^?1, MCPB at 1·5 or 2·0 kg ha^?1, and MCPA + MCPB at 0·33 + 1·0 or 0·67 + 0·5 kg ha^?1 gave results very similar to MCPA at 1 kg ha^?1. Thistle control varied between sites and years. Some of the variation may have been due to different proportions of first and second year thistles present at spraying, and to variation in genetically determined herbicide susceptibility. Chemical control of thistles was short term only, because of dormant seeds in the soil.     

Seed dormancy and soil seedbank of the invasive weed Chenopodium hybridum in north‐western China

Seed dormancy and persistence in the soil seedbank play a key role in timing of germination and seedling emergence of weeds; thus, knowledge of these traits is required for effective weed management. We investigated seed dormancy and seed persistence on/in soil of Chenopodium hybridum, an annual invasive weed in north‐western China. Fresh seeds are physiologically dormant. Sulphuric acid scarification, mechanical scarification and cold stratification significantly increased germination percentages, whereas dry storage and treatments with plant growth regulators or nitrate had no effect. Dormancy was alleviated by piercing the seed coat but not the pericarp. Pre‐treatment of seeds collected in 2012 and 2013 with sulphuric acid for 30 min increased germination from 0% to 66% and 62% respectively. Effect of cold stratification on seed germination varied with soil moisture content (MC) and duration of treatment; seeds stratified in soil with 12% MC for 2 months germinated to 39%. Burial duration, burial depth and their interaction had significant effects on seed dormancy and seed viability. Dormancy in fresh seeds was released from October to February, and seeds re‐entered dormancy in April. Seed viability decreased with time for seeds on the soil surface and for those buried at a depth of 5 cm, and 39% and 10%, respectively, were viable after 22 months. Thus, C. hybridum can form at least a short‐lived persistent soil seedbank.     

Factors affecting the activity of ethephon in stimulating seed germination of Striga hermonthica (Del.) Benth.

Ethephon (2-chloroethylphosphonic acid), which generates ethylene, stimulated the germination of pre-conditioned seeds of Striga hermonthica when it was added to the alkaline Gezira clay soil at concentrations of 2.5 to 30 mg kg^?1. As little as 5 min contact with treated soil was enough to stimulate germination. Ethephon in soil did not cause germination of unconditioned seeds for periods of up to 12 days and also had an adverse effect on seed germination when such seeds were given a second ethephon exposure after a storage period which was adequate, in untreated soil, to give the necessary pre-conditioning. Ethephon activity persisted in air-dry soil but declined over a 14 day period in moist soil. In the field ethephon at 0.6 to 4.8 kg ha^?1 decreased the number of Striga shoots and increased sorghum height and flowering.     

Wild oat (Avena sterilis L.) competition with winter barley: plant density effects

The competitive interactions between Avena sterilis ssp. ludoviciana (Dur.) Nyman and winter barley have been studied, taking into consideration the densities of both species. As the density of A. sterilis increased, barley yield decreased exponentially. A 10% reduction in yield was found with wild oat densities ranging from 20–80 panicles m^–2, and yield losses reached 50%, with densities of >300 panicles m^–2, Barley grain yield was reduced by wild oats through a reduction in the number of fertile tillers. Climatic conditions during the growing seasons affected the response of barley to wild oat competition. In general, barley yields were relatively unaffected by seeding rates, with similar responses observed in the presence and in the absence of wild oat infestations. However, the highest yield losses were obtained with the lowest seeding rate (100 kg ha^–1). Furthermore, low barley densities allowed the wild oat plants to produce more seeds, increasing the potential infestation during the following season.     

Effect of burial depth and soil water regime on the fate of Lithospermum arvense seeds in relation to burial time

Lithospermum arvense is an increasing annual weed in winter crops of the semiarid region of southern Argentina under low impact tillage systems, an agricultural practice that has become popular in recent years. Seed distribution in the soil profile under conventional tillage will change when reduced tillage is implemented, thus affecting the germination microenvironment. The effect of seed burial depth and soil water regime on field germination, enforced dormancy, innate dormancy and seed decay was studied in relation to burial time in a field experiment. In addition, the effect of burial depth on seed germination and seedling emergence was examined under laboratory controlled conditions. Field germination of buried seed ranged from 55% to 65% for shallow (2 cm) and from 5% to 30% for greater depths (20 cm). Enforced dormancy levels were significantly higher among deeper seeds. The amount of innate dormant seeds was reduced to <10% after a year of burial. Lithospermum arvense seedbanks can be classified as short-term persistent. Germination in the laboratory was unaffected by burial depth, while seedling emergence reduction was adequately described by a sigmoidal model. Results indicate that agricultural practices that accumulate L. arvense seeds near the soil surface enhance seedling recruitment.     

Study of seasonal variation in dormancy of Spergula arvensis L. seeds in a condensed annual temperature cycle

Changes in dormancy of Spergula arvensis seeds were studied during pre-incubation at constant temperatures and under a temperature regime that condensed the annual temperature cycle into 73 days. Each day in the regime represented the mean day and night temperatures and day lengths of 5 successive days of an average year in The Netherlands. Incubation occurred in water or loamy sand, in darkness. Germination of the seeds was tested in water or KNO₃ over a range of temperature. Seeds were irradiated with saturating doses of red light. In half of the treatments, pre-incubated seeds were dehydrated at the transfer to the conditions of the germination test. Breaking of dormancy occurred under conditions of 'spring'. It did not depend on exposure to low‘winter’temperatures, but was induced by rising 'spring’temperatures. Seeds developed secondary dormancy in late‘autumn'. The expression of the changes in dormancy that were induced during pre-incubation depended on the conditions of the germination test. Light, nitrate and dehydration stimulated germination. The experiments predicted that field emergence from nitrate-poor soils that have not been dehydrated will be restricted to a short period in autumn, whereas disturbance of nitrate-rich soils followed by a dry spell will stimulate germination of S. arvensis seeds from early spring to late autumn. The data presented good explanations for the cosmopolitan character and the serious weediness of this species. Its classification as a summer or winter annual is discussed.