In situ mineral <Superscript>15</Superscript>N dynamics and fate of added <Superscript>15</Superscript>NH<Subscript>4</Subscript><Superscript>+</Superscript> in hoop pine plantation and adjacent native forest in subtropical Australia

Background, aim, and scope  Hoop pine (Araucaria cunninghamii) is a nitrogen (N) demanding indigenous Australia softwood species with plantations in Southeast Queensland, Australia. Soil fertility has declined with increasing rotations and comparison study of N cycling between hoop pine plantations, and adjacent native forest (NF) is required to develop effective forest management for enhancing sustainable forest production and promoting environmental benefits. Field in situ mineral ¹⁵N transformations in these two forest ecosystems have not been studied. Hence, the present study was to compare the differences in soil nutrients, N transformations, ¹⁵N fluxes, and fate between the hoop pine plantation and the adjacent native forest. Materials and methods  The study sites were in Yarraman State Forest (26°52′ S, 151°51′ E), Southeastern Queensland, Australia. The in situ core incubation method was used in the field experiments. Mineral N was determined using a LACHAT Quickchem Automated Ion Analyzer. ¹⁵N were performed using an isotope ratio mass spectrometer with a Eurovector elemental analyzer. All statistical tests were carried out by the SPSS 11.0 for Windows statistical software package. Results  Soil total C and N were significantly higher in the NF than in the 53-year-old hoop pine plantation. Concentrations of NO₃ ^– were significantly higher in the NF soil than in the plantation soil. The plantation soil had significantly higher ¹⁵N and ¹³C natural abundances than the NF soil. The NF soil had significantly lower C/N ratios than the plantation soil. NO₃ ^––N was dominated in mineral N pools in both NF and plantation soils, accounting for 91.6% and 70.3% of the total mineral N pools, respectively. Rates of net nitrification and net N mineralization were, respectively, four and three times higher in the NF soil than in the plantation soil. The ¹⁵NO₃ ^––N and mineral ¹⁵N were significantly higher in the NF soil than in the plantation soil. Significant difference in ¹⁵NH₄ ⁺–N was found in the NF soil before and after the incubation. Discussion  The NF soil had significantly higher NO₃ ^––N, mineral N, total N and C but lower δ¹⁵N, δ¹³C, and C/N ratios than the plantation soil. Moreover, the rates of soil net N mineralization and nitrification were significantly higher, but ammonification rate was lower in the NF than in the plantation. The NF soil had many more dynamic N transformations than the plantation soil due to the combination of multiple species and layers and, thus, stimulation of microbial activity and alteration of C and N pool sizes in favor of the N transformations by soil microbes. The net rate of N and ¹⁵N transformation demonstrated differences in N dynamic related to the variation in tree species between the two ecosystems. Conclusions  The change of land use and trees species had significant impacts on soil nutrients and N cycling processes. The plantation had larger losses of N than the NF. The NO₃ ^––N and ¹⁵NO₃ ^––N dominated in the mineral N and ¹⁵N pools in both forest ecosystems. Recommendations and perspectives  Native forest soil had strong N dynamic compared with the plantation soil. Composition of multiple tree species with different ecological niches in the plantation could promote the soil ecosystem sustainability. The ¹⁵N isotope dilution technique in the field can be quite useful for studying in situ mineral ¹⁵N transformations and fate to further understand actual N dynamics in natural forest soils.     

Gross nitrogen transformations in adjacent native and plantation forests of subtropical Australia

The impact of land-use change on soil nitrogen (N) transformations was investigated in adjacent native forest (NF), 53 y-old first rotation (1R) and 5 y-old second rotation (2R) hoop pine (Araucaia cunninghamii) plantations. The ¹⁵N isotope dilution method was used to quantify gross rates of N transformations in aerobic and anaerobic laboratory incubations. Results showed that the land-use change had a significant impact on the soil N transformations. Gross ammonification rates in the aerobic incubation ranged between 0.62 and 1.78 mg N kg⁻¹ d⁻¹, while gross nitrification rates ranged between 2.1 and 6.6 mg N kg⁻¹ d⁻¹. Gross ammonification rates were significantly lower in the NF and the 1R soils than in the 2R soils, however gross nitrification rates were significantly higher in the NF soils than in the plantation soils. The greater rates of gross nitrification found in the NF soil compared to the plantation soils, were related to lower soil C:N ratios (i.e. more labile soil N under NF). Nitrification was found to be the dominant soil N transformation process in the contrasting forest ecosystems. This might be attributed to certain site conditions which may favour the nitrifying community, such as the dry climate and tree species. There was some evidence to suggest that heterotrophic nitrifiers may undertake a significant portion of nitrification.     

Soil microbial biomass, activity and community composition in adjacent native and plantation forests of subtropical Australia

Purpose

Soil nitrogen (N) availability is a critical determinant of plantation productivity in subtropical Australia and is influenced by the soil microbial community. The size, structure and function of the soil microbial community can be impacted by land-use change and residue management. The objectives of this study were to examine the impact of land-use change from (1) native forest (NF) to first rotation (1R) hoop pine plantation and (2) 1R hoop pine plantation to second rotation (2R) hoop pine plantation on the soil microbial community. The impact of residue management on the soil microbial community was also investigated in the 2R forest, where soil microbial parameters were measured in tree rows (2R-T) and windrows (2R-W). In addition, relationships between soil microbial parameters and soil N parameters were investigated.

Materials and methods

Each of the four treatments (NF, 1R, 2R-T and 2R-W) had five 24-m² replicate plots from which 15 soil cores were collected and bulked at three depths (0–10, 10–20, 20–30 cm). Microbial biomass carbon (MBC) and N (MBN) and soil respiration were measured on field moist soils. In addition, carbon (C) source utilisation patterns were assessed using the whole soil MicroResp? technique (Campbell et al. 2003).

Results and discussion

Results indicate that the land-use change from NF to 1R hoop pine plantation significantly reduced MBC, respiration rate, soil total C and total N. Furthermore, the land-use change appeared to have a significant impact on the soil microbial community composition measured using MicroResp? profiles. Land-use change from 1R to 2R hoop pine plantation resulted in a decline in total C and MBN and a shift in microbial community composition. When compared to the 2R-T soils, the 2R-W soils tended to have a greater microbial biomass and respiration rate. Residue management also influenced the microbial community composition measured in the MicroResp? profiles.

Conclusions

Results indicate that land-use change had a significant impact on the soil microbial community, which was likely to be related to shifts in the quality and quantity of organic inputs associated with the change in land use. This may have significant implications for the long-term productivity of the soil resource. Further studies are required to confirm a difference in microbial community composition associated with residue management. In addition, long-term experiments in subtropical Australia are necessary to verify the results of this snapshot study and to improve our understanding of the impact of single-species plantation forestry and residue management on the soil microbial community, soil N dynamics and ultimately the long-term sustainability of the soil resource.     

Soil carbon turnover and sequestration in native subtropical tree plantations

Approximately 30% of global soil organic carbon (SOC) is stored in subtropical and tropical ecosystems but it is being rapidly lost due to continuous deforestation. Tree plantations are advocated as a C sink, however, little is known about rates of C turnover and sequestration into soil organic matter under subtropical and tropical tree plantations. We studied changes in SOC in a chronosequence of hoop pine (Araucaria cunninghamii) plantations established on former rainforest sites in seasonally dry subtropical Australia. SOC, δ¹³C, and light fraction organic C (LF C<1.6 g cm⁻³) were determined in plantations, secondary rainforest and pasture. We calculated loss of rainforest SOC after clearing for pasture using an isotope mixing model, and used the decay rate of rainforest-derived C to predict input of hoop pine-derived C into the soil. Total SOC stocks to 100 cm depth were significantly (P<0.01) higher under rainforest (241 t ha⁻¹) and pasture (254 t ha⁻¹) compared to hoop pine (176-211 t ha⁻¹). We calculated that SOC derived from hoop pine inputs ranged from 32% (25 year plantation) to 61% (63 year plantation) of total SOC in the 0-30 cm soil layer, but below 30 cm all C originated from rainforest. These results were compared to simulations made by the Century soil organic matter model. The Century model simulations showed that lower C stocks under hoop pine plantations were due to reduced C inputs to the slow turnover C pool, such that this pool only recovers to within 45% of the original rainforest C pool after 63 years. This may indicate differences in soil C stabilization mechanisms under hoop pine plantations compared with rainforest and pasture. These results demonstrate that subtropical hoop pine plantations do not rapidly sequester SOC into long-term storage pools, and that alternative plantation systems may need to be investigated to achieve greater soil C sequestration.     

Responses of soil dissolved organic matter to long-term plantations of three coniferous tree species

Tree species have significant effects on the availability and dynamics of soil organic matter. In the present study, the pool sizes of soil dissolved organic matter (DOM), potential mineralizable N (PMN) and bio-available carbon (C) (measured as cumulative CO₂ evolution over 63 days) were compared in soils under three coniferous species — 73 year old slash (Pinus elliottii), hoop (Araucaria cunninghamii) and kauri (Agathis robusta) pines. Results have shown that dissolved organic N (DON) in hot water extracts was 1.5–1.7 times lower in soils under slash pine than under hoop and kauri pines, while soil dissolved organic C (DOC) in hot water extracts tended to be higher under slash pine than hoop and kauri pines but this was not statistically significant. This has led to the higher DOC:DON ratio in soils under slash pine (32) than under hoop and kauri pines (17). Soil DOC and DON in 2 M KCl extracts were not significantly different among the three tree species. The DOC:DON ratio (hot water extracts) was positively and significantly correlated with soil C:N (R² = 0.886, P < 0.01) and surface litter C:N ratios (R² = 0.768, P < 0.01), indicating that DOM was mainly derived from litter materials and soil organic matter through dissolution and decomposition. Soil pH was lower under slash pine (4.5) than under hoop (6.0) and kauri (6.2) pines, and negatively correlated with soil total C, C:N ratio, DOC and DOC:DON ratio (hot water extracts), indicating the soil acidity under slash pine favored the accumulation of soil C. Moreover, the amounts of dissolved inorganic N, PMN and bio-available C were also significantly lower in soils under slash pine than under hoop and kauri pines. It is concluded that changes in the quantity and quality of surface litters and soil pH induced by different tree species largely determined the size and quality of soil DOM, and plantations of hoop and kauri pine trees may be better in maintaining long-term soil N fertility than slash pine plantations.     

Soluble organic nitrogen pools in adjacent native and plantation forests of subtropical Australia

Soil soluble organic nitrogen (SON) can play an important role in soil nitrogen (N) cycling in forest ecosystems. This study examined the effect of land-use change from a native forest (NF) to a first rotation (1R) and subsequent second rotation (2R) hoop pine (Araucaria cunninghamii) plantation on soil SON pools. The impact of residue management on SON pools was also investigated in the 2R forest, where SON was measured in tree rows (2R-T) and windrows (2R-W). Various extraction techniques were used to measure SON pool size in the 0-10, 10-20 and 20-30 cm layers of soil. The results showed that land-use change had a significant impact on soil SON pools. In the 0-10 cm layer, 3.2-8.7, 14-23, 20-28, 60-160 and 127-340 mg SON kg⁻¹ were extracted by water, 0.5 M K₂SO₄, 2 M KCl, hot water and hot 2 M KCl, respectively. The size of the SON pools and the potential production of SON (PPSON) were generally highest in the NF soil and lowest in the 2R-T soil, and in all forest types decreased with soil depth. The larger SON pools in the NF soil coincided with lower soil, litter and root C:N ratios, suggesting that the difference in the size of SON pools between the NF and 1R soil may be related to differences in the quality of organic matter input under the different forest ecosystems. Differences in the size of SON pools between the 1R soil and the 2R soils and between the 2R-T soil and the 2R-W soil may be related to the quantity of organic matter input and time since disturbance. Significant relationships were found between the SON extracted by 0.5 M K₂SO₄ (SON_ps) and 2 M KCl (SON_KCl), and also among the SON extracted by hot 2 M KCl (SON_hKCl), hot water (SON_hw) and water (SON_w), suggesting that the organic N released by these groups of extracts may be at least partly from similar pools.     

Land-use history,forest conversion,and soil organic carbon in pine plantations and native forests of south eastern Australia

Land-use history – the number, type, and duration of previous land uses – is relevant to many questions regarding land-use effects on soil carbon, but is infrequently reported. We examine the importance of land-use history variables, as well as topographic and edaphic variables, on soil C in a range of forest types – native forest, pine plantations, secondary forest and rehabilitated forest – at three contrasting locations in south eastern Australia. Our comparisons include a novel forest conversion of exotic pine plantations to native, broadleaf forest.Using nested ANOVAs, we detected few differences in soil C concentration indices (total C, microbial biomass C, K₂SO₄–C) and C content among eucalypt-dominated vegetation and pine plantations within each location (0–10 cm depth). However, planned contrasts indicated a 30% decrease in soil C content with conversion of native forest to pine plantation of age 37 years. The reverse land-use change – pine plantation to native, broadleaf forest – was associated with a decrease in soil C concentration and content at one location (40%; age 12–13 years) and no detectable changes at another (to age 7 years). Variable effect between locations of this novel land-use change on soil C could be due to differences in potential productivity, conifer species, and plantation age.We used correlation coefficients and general linear models to identify widely applicable variables for predicting soil C concentration and content at local scales (≤ 20 km²). Within-location relationships with topographic variables were weak and infrequent relative to those with edaphic and land-use history variables. Soil texture was strongly correlated with soil C at each location, although the relative significance of different particle size fractions differed among locations. Electrical conductivity appeared more widely applicable since it was included in C models at two locations. Combining land-use history and edaphic variables produced strong predictive models for soil C concentrations and content at two locations (total r² 0.83 to 0.95). Positive relationships were indicated between soil C and ‘age of current vegetation’ at one location, and negative relationships were indicated with ‘number of land uses’ at another. These data highlight a potential predictive role for land-use history variables in local-scale assessments of soil C in forested landscapes.     

Land use effects on microbial biomass C, β-glucosidase and β-glucosaminidase activities,and availability,storage, and age of organic C in soil

Microbial biomass, β-glucosidase and β-glucosaminidase activities, and availability, storage, and age of soil organic C were investigated after 26 years of conversion from sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum) to forest (Eucaliptus robusta or Leucaena leucocephala), pasture (mixture of tropical grasses), and to vegetable cropping (agriculture) in a vertisol in Puerto Rico. Soil organic C (SOC) at 0–100 cm was similar under Leucaena (22.8 kg C/m²), Eucalyptus (18.6 kg C/m²), and pasture (17.2 kg C/m²), which were higher than under agriculture (13.0 kg C/m²). Soil organic N (SON) at 0–100 cm was similar under the land uses evaluated which ranged from 1.70 (under agriculture) to 2.28 kg N/m² (under Leucaena forest). Microbial biomass C (MBC) and N (MBN) of the 0–15-cm soil layer could be ranked as: pasture > Leucaena = Eucalyptus > agriculture. The percentages of SOC and SON present as MBC and MBN, respectively, were nearly 1% in pasture and less than 0.50% in forest under Leucaena or Eucalyptus and agricultural soil. The activity of β-glucosidase of the 0–15-cm soil layer could be ranked as: Leucaena = Eucalyptus > pasture > agriculture; while β-glucosaminidase activity was ranked as: Eucalyptus > Leucaena = pasture > agriculture. The soil δ ¹³C changed from 1996 to 2006 in forest under Eucalyptus (18.7‰ to 21.2‰), but not under Leucaena (20.7‰ to 20.8‰). The soil under Leucaena preserved a greater proportion of old C compared to the forest under Eucalyptus; the former had an increased soil mineralizable C from the current vegetation inputs. The soil under agriculture had the lowest enzyme activities associated with C cycling, lowest percentage of SOC as MBC, highest percentage of SOC present as mineralizable C, and highest percentage of MBC present as mineralizable C compared to the other land uses.     

Nitrogen deposition influences nitrogen isotope composition in soil and needles of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Pinus massoniana</Emphasis> forests along an urban-rural gradient in the Pearl River Delta of south China

Purpose  

Atmospheric nitrogen (N) deposition remains globally and regionally a significant N source in forest ecosystems, with intensive industrial activities. Stable N isotope ratio (δ¹⁵N) is a useful indicator widely adopted to assess environmental and ecological impacts of anthropogenic N inputs. On the basis of temporal changes in tree ring δ¹⁵N established recently, the present study investigated the influence of N deposition on δ¹⁵N in needles of Masson pine (Pinus massoniana L.) and forest soil along an urban–rural gradient in the Pearl River Delta of south China.     

Assessing management impacts on soil organic matter quality in subtropical Australian forests using physical and chemical fractionation as well as C NMR spectroscopy

Successful soil organic matter (SOM) quality assessment is needed to improve our ability to manage forest soils sustainably. Our objective was to use a multivariate data set to determine whether the land use conversion from native forest (NF) to hoop pine plantation and the following rotation and site preparation practices had altered SOM quality at three adjacent sites of NF, first (1R) and second rotation (2R, including tree planting row (2R-T) and windrow of harvest residues (2R-W)) of hoop pine plantations in southeast Queensland, Australia. Cross-polarization magic angle spinning ¹³C nuclear magnetic resonance (CPMAS ¹³C NMR) spectroscopy and sequential hot water and acid hydrolysis were conducted on SOM fractions separated by wet-sieving and density fractionation procedures to characterize SOM quantitative and qualitative relevant parameters, including carbon (C) functional groups, C and nitrogen (N) contents, C/N ratios, and C and N recalcitrant indices. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) and principal component analysis (PCA) of these multivariate parameters together indicated a complicated interaction between physical protection and biochemical recalcitrance, making the land use and management induced changes of SOM quality more complex. Knowledge of PCA based on the refined set of 41 SOM quantitative and qualitative parameters identified that principal component 1 (PC1), which explained 55.7% of the total variance, was most responsible for the management induced changes in soil processes. This was reflected by the dynamics of SOM regarding the aspects of total stock, soil basal and substrate induced respirations, gross and net N mineralization and nitrification, and microbial biomass, microbial diversity of C utilization patterns. Further, the macroaggregates (F_{250-2000 μm}) and the C/N ratio of acid extracts of SOM physical fractions, which represented the most informative and unique variables loading on PC1, might be the most promising physical and chemical measures for SOM quality assessment of land use and management impacts in subtropical Australian forests.     

Coniferous afforestation increases soil carbon in maritime sand dunes

Afforestation of grasslands can increase C sequestration and provide additional economic and environmental benefits. Pine plantations, however, have often been found to deplete soil organic C and trigger detrimental effects on soils. We examined soil characteristics under a 45-year-old Pinus radiata stand and under adjacent grassland on maritime dunes in temperate Argentina. Soil under the pine plantation had greater soil organic C (+93%), total N (+55%) and available P (+100%) concentrations than under grassland. Carbon was stored under the pinestand at an estimated mean accretion rate of 0.64 Mg ha^?1 y^?1. At 0- to 25-cm depth, soil C amounted to 61 Mg ha^?1 under pine and 27 Mg ha^?1 under grassland. Soil C accumulated more on dune slopes (35 Mg ha^?1 y^?1) than on ridges(29 Mg ha^?1 y^?1) and bottoms (12 Mg ha^?1 y^?1). Compared with the grassland, soil acidity, cation-exchange capacity, base losses (K > Ca = Mg) and C/N ratio increased under pine. Spatial heterogeneity in soil characteristics was greater under pine than under grassland. Such variability was non-systematic and did not support the ‘single-tree influence circle’ concept. Afforestation increased C in soil, forest floor and tree biomass in dunes with ustic climate regime.     

长白山东部4种林分类型土壤有机碳及养分特征研究

以长白山东部长白落叶松天然林、长白落叶松人工林、天然阔叶混交林、天然针阔混交林4种林分类型为研究对象,对比分析了土壤有机碳(SOC)的垂直分布特征,以及与土壤理化性质的相关性.结果表明,4种林分下土壤有机碳含量及其差异程度随土壤深度增加均呈现逐渐减小的趋势.0-60 cm土层土壤有机碳含量大小依次为天然针阔混交林(33.64士17.48 g/kg)＞长白落叶松天然林(25.30±15.09 g/kg)＞天然阔叶混交林(22.13±13.74 g/kg)＞长白落叶松人工林(19.23±12.35 g/kg);天然针阔混交林0-60 cm土壤有机碳密度为21.44±8.31 kg/m2,显著高于其他3种林分类型,长白落叶松人工林最小,为14.29±1.59 kg/m2.对不同土层土壤有机碳和土壤理化性质进行相关分析,结果表明,整个土壤剖面有机碳含量与自然含水率、全N、全P、全K、速效K均呈极显著或显著正相关,与土壤密度呈极显著负相关;不同林分类型土壤有机碳含量和碳密度与全N均呈显著或极显著正相关,与土壤理化性质相关性存在较大差异.     

Effects of weed control and fertilization on soil carbon and nutrient pools in an exotic pine plantation of subtropical Australia

Purpose  

Soil carbon (C) and nutrient pools under different plantation weed control and fertilizer management treatments were assessed in a 7-year-old, F₁ hybrid (Pinus elliottii var. elliottii × Pinus caribaea var. hondurensis) plantation in southeast Queensland, Australia. This research aimed to investigate how early establishment silvicultural treatments would affect weed biomass, soil C, nitrogen (N) and other nutrient pools; and soil C (δ¹³C) and N isotope composition (δ¹⁵N) to help explain the key soil processes regulating the soil C and nutrient pools and dynamics.     

Temporal changes in fertility and microbial properties of soil in forest-converted oil palm plantations in Okomu forest reserve,Nigeria

Evidence of the impacts of land-use change on soil biological activities, a determinant of nutrient cycling in soil, will provide a better understanding of soil health and productivity. The study investigates temporal changes in soil chemical and microbial properties in a forest converted to oil palm plantation. Soil samples from four locations: native forest and Elaeis guineensis plantations of 2-, 13- and 14-year were collected. Total carbon C and N were significantly higher (p < 0.05) in the native forest (NF) followed by 14- and 13-year E. guineensis plantations respectively. Microbial biomass carbon (MBC) and nitrogen (MBN) in NF were significantly higher (p < 0.05) than in the E. guineensis plantations. There were no significant differences in the microbial biomass phosphorus (MBP) among the E. guineensis plantation of all ages. The qCO₂ in the 13- and 14-year E. guineensis plantations was higher than in NF and 2-year E. guineensis plantation. There was a positive correlation between MBC, MBN, MBP and pH, P, TC, and TN. These results indicated that conversion of native forest to E. guineensis plantation affected soil nutrient and microbial properties. And there could be a return to healthy soil condition as age of E. guineensis plantation increased.     

Nitrogen mineralisation in the soil of indigenous oak and pine plantation forests in a Mediterranean environment

Nitrogen mineralisation in soils of various forest sites (pine plantation, natural and thinned oak) at Uluda? University campus in Bursa, Turkey was investigated continuously over a year by the field incubation method. Net nitrogen mineralisation and nitrification rates varied depending on sampling dates. Although nitrogen mineralisation and nitrification rates increased in the spring and summer months, there was no seasonal variation in the soils of the examined forests. Annual net nitrate (NO₃^?–N) accumulation in the upper soil layer (0–5 cm) was higher in Oak I and Oak II (14 kg ha y^?1 and 12 kg ha y^?1) than in the pine plantation (8 kg ha y^?1). While annual net NO₃^?–N accumulation (0–5 cm) varied between the oak forests (possibly due to forest management practices), annual net N_min values were similar in these forests. No significant correlation was found between the examined soil parameters and net nitrification and mineralisation rates in the soils (P > 0.05). These results indicate that tree species and forest management practices play important roles in N cycling in forest ecosystems.     

Response of labile soil organic matter to changes in forest vegetation in subtropical regions

Labile soil organic matter (SOM) can sensitively respond to changes in land use and management practices, and has been suggested as an early and sensitive indicator of SOM. However, knowledge of effects of forest vegetation type on labile SOM is still scarce, particularly in subtropical regions. Soil microbial biomass C and N, water-soluble soil organic C and N, and light SOM fraction in four subtropical forests were studied in subtropical China. Forest vegetation type significantly affected labile SOM. Secondary broadleaved forest (SBF) had the highest soil microbial biomass, basal respiration and water-soluble SOM, and the pure Cunninghamia lanceolata plantation (PC) the lowest. Soil microbial biomass C and N and respiration were on average 100%, 104% and 75%, respectively higher in the SBF than in the PC. The influence of vegetation on water-soluble SOM was generally larger in the 0–10 cm soil layer than in the 10–20 cm. Cold- and hot-water-soluble organic C and N were on average 33–70% higher in the SBF than in the PC. Cold- and hot-soluble soil organic C concentrations in the coniferous-broadleaved mixed plantations were on average 38.1 and 25.0% higher than in the pure coniferous plantation, and cold- and hot-soluble soil total N were 51.4 and 14.1% higher, respectively. Therefore, introducing native broadleaved trees into pure coniferous plantations increased water-soluble SOM. The light SOM fraction (free and occluded) in the 0–10 cm soil layer, which ranged from 11.7 to 29.2 g kg⁻¹ dry weight of soil, was strongly affected by vegetation. The light fraction soil organic C, expressed as percent of total soil organic C, ranged from 18.3% in the mixed plantations of C. lanceolata and Kalopanax septemlobus to 26.3% in the SBF. In addition, there were strong correlations among soil organic C and labile fractions, suggesting that they were in close association and partly represented similar C pools in soils. Our results indicated that hot-water-soluble method could be a suitable measure for labile SOM in subtropical forest soils.     

Culture-dependent and culture-independent microbial investigation of pine litters and soil in subtropical Australia

Background, aim, and scope  Forest plantations, widely grown for wood production, involve the selective promotion of single-tree species or replacement of natural species by exotic tree species. Slash pine (Pinus elliottii) has been chosen for reforestation of infertile sandy soils in southeast Queensland, Australia. These exotic pine plantations minimize soil and water losses and are important scientific study sites. The soil environment of these plantations, though devoid of sufficient nutrients, organic carbon and other factors, harbors innumerable bacteria that may play a crucial role in maintaining soil quality and ecosystem functions. These soil microorganisms also have the potential for use as sensitive biological indicators to reflect environmental changes. It is therefore essential to understand the interrelationships among bacterial communities and their environment by assessing their structural and functional diversity and their responses to disturbances. The main aim of our investigation was to determine the diversity of bacterial communities in forest litters and soil during the forest leaf litter decomposition using culture-dependent and culture-independent techniques. Materials and methods  A 25-cm (diameter) × 40-cm core sample was collected and fractionated into three subsamples designated E1 (L leaf litter layer), E2 (F leaf litter layer), and E5 (0–10 cm soil layer). Both culture-dependent and culture-independent methods were applied in this study. In the culture-independent study, a strategy of whole-community DNA extraction, polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification followed by cloning and 16S rDNA sequence analysis was used; for culture-dependent study, the strategy included sample plating and bacteria isolating, DNA extraction, PCR amplification, and 16S rDNA sequence analysis. The diversity similarities between two bacterial communities and two methods are quantified using Jensen–Shannon divergence. Results  From culture-dependent study, 336 colonies in total were isolated and grouped from the three subsamples, and the 16S rRNA sequence analysis from a representative isolate from each morphogroup (21 isolates) indicated that they belonged to the phyla Actinobacteria, Firmicutes, and Proteobacteria. Culture-independent assessment based on 16S rRNA gene library comprising 194 clones revealed that members of the phylum Actinobacteria were absent in the culture-independent studies. Clones in libraries from E1 consisted exclusively of members of the Firmicutes. The majority of clones from E2 were related to Firmicutes (79%) and Proteobacteria (21%). Clones derived from E5 were mostly affiliated with Acidobacterium (42%), followed by unclassified bacteria (27%), Verrucomicrobiales (12%), Proteobacteria (11%), and Planctomycetes (8%). Discussion  This study showed that bacterial culturabilities in different fractions of leaf litters were similar, and both of them were higher than the bacterial culturability in the soil. Unculturable bacterial diversity in the soil, however, was much higher than the leaf litter bacterial diversity. The bacterial diversity on the top layer of leaf litters was slightly less than that on the bottom layer of leaf litters. This might indicate that forest soils are a more complex environment than leaf litters are and also that they might inhabit more unculturable microorganisms in the forest soils, which would need to be further investigated. The leaf litter layer samples also demonstrate the significant difference between the bacterial community diversity discovered by these two methods in this study. The information provided by assessing the different fractions of leaf litters and forest soil has improved our understanding of the bacterial community distributions within the forest soil and the above-leaf litters in an exotic pine plantation of subtropical Australia. Conclusions  This study represents the first attempt to examine the bacterial community in the different fractions of forest leaf litters and soil in subtropical Australia. The data from this study show that the 16S rDNA clone libraries provided more comprehensive phylogenetic diversity in the soil and leaf litter samples than the culture collections provided, and both the culture-dependent and culture-independent studies revealed that the bacterial diversity present in the leaf litters was very different to that present in the soil. The comparative analysis of bacterial communities in different fractions of leaf litters and soil samples has also provided important baseline information about the bacterial diversity and composition in the exotic pine forest plantations. Recommendations and perspectives  The experimental data provided important information on the bacterial diversity in forest leaf litter and soil samples, though additional surveys and comparisons at different locations would be needed to further characterize. In addition, combined methods that can provide different parts of information on bacterial diversity are encouraged to be used in bacterial community study. The established libraries of diverse 16S rRNA gene fragments from slash pine leaf litters and forest soil can be used to construct specific DNA primers and probes to target bacterial groups of interest. It may then be possible to study the ecology of these bacterial communities and the role of specific bacterial groups that contribute to the many interesting properties of these environments.     

Long‐term Effects of Pine Plantations on Soil Quality in Southern Spain

This work evaluated how pine plantations established on old fields and degraded lands influence soil properties in comparison with adjacent unplanted areas that undergo into secondary succession, and native forests, analysing the effects of abiotic variables and stand characteristics in the afforestation process. Thirty‐two paired sites (pine plantations versus unplanted areas) and 10 native forests were selected in the SE Spain. In total, 74 soil profiles were studied, and 222 composite soil samples were collected at three different depths. Soil organic carbon, cation exchange capacity, and C : N ratio showed significantly greater values in pine plantations in relation to the unplanted areas (0–5 cm), and the mean values of soil organic carbon, nitrogen (N), C : N ratio, and cation exchange capacity in these pine plantations were similar to those found under native forests. Only K⁺ concentrations were clearly higher in the native forests than in the other land uses for all depths analysed. Pine plantations in the drier and warmer areas showed lower soil quality in relation to the paired unplanted areas, as well as the younger and denser ones; it may be because under these situations, more time is needed to produce an improvement. In fact, the paired net variations increased with the stand age and/or tree size. In conclusion, pine plantations were in general more efficient in improving parameters related to soil quality, especially in locations with high soil water retention capacity, which in our study area were found at higher and cooler elevations. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Application of (15NH4)2SO4 to study N dynamics in hoop pine plantation and adjacent native forest of subtropical Australia: the effects of injection depth and litter addition

Purpose

Hoop pine (Araucaria cunninghamii) is a nitrogen (N)-demanding native Australian softwood plantation species. Litter quality and its effects on soil mineral N and ¹⁵N transformations have not been well studied in the hoop pine plantation and adjacent native forest. The present study was conducted to determine the impact of ¹⁵N injection depth and litter additions on the dynamics and fate of mineral ¹⁵N and also to compare the difference in litter quality, ¹⁵N dynamics, and fate between the hoop pine plantation (HP) and the adjacent native forest (NF).

Materials and methods

The experiments were done in the Yarraman State Forest (26°52′ S, 151°51′ E), southeastern Queensland. Materials of litter addition were prepared on the basis of ten random samples of litters taken from the NF and HP sites using a 1?×?1-m quadrat. Litter additions were defined as: SL represented the average condition of forest floor in the forest ecosystems and DL represented the double average amount of litters in the forest ecosystem. Experiment 1 covered 2 forest types (NF and HP)?×?3 litter rates (nil litter, SL, and DL)?×?3 ¹⁵N injection depths (0, 2.5, and 5.0 cm). Experiment 2 included 2 forest types (NF and HP)?×?2 litter rates (nil litter and SL)?×?3 injection depths (0, 2.5, and 5.0 cm) of distilled water. The in situ core incubation method was used with an incubation period of 28 days. The isotope ratio of mineral N or/and total N (soil and litter) were analyzed using an isotope ratio mass spectrometer with a Eurovector elemental analyzer (Isoprime-EuroEA 3000).

Results

Total N and δ ¹⁵N were significantly higher, and C/N ratios and δ ¹³C were significantly lower in the NF litters than in the HP litters. The NF litters had significantly lower total ¹⁵N and total ¹⁵N recovery than the HP litters after ¹⁵N addition. Litter addition had no significant effect on mineral ¹⁵N transformations and δ ¹⁵N in the NF soil, but decreased ¹⁵NO ₃ ^? –N, mineral ¹⁵N, and δ ¹⁵N and increased immobilized ¹⁵N in the HP soil. The depth of added ¹⁵NH ₄ ⁺ significantly altered total ¹⁵N, δ ¹⁵N, and total ¹⁵N recovery in the litters, whereas it did not influence ¹⁵NH ₄ ⁺ –N, ¹⁵NO ₃ ^? –N, mineral ¹⁵N, or immobilized ¹⁵N in soils in the two forest ecosystems.

Discussion

The NF litters had significantly higher δ ¹⁵N than the HP litters, indicating that the NF soil had a higher rate of nitrification than the HP soil. Higher litter quality in the NF was an important driving force for N cycling to promote strong N dynamics in the NF soil over the HP soil. The HP litters had significantly higher total ¹⁵N than the NF litters after ¹⁵N addition, implying that soil mineral N was relatively deficient in the HP in comparison with the NF. Litters decreased nitrification and increased immobilization in the HP soil, showing forest litters resulted in more N immobilization to prevent the loss of substantial quantities of NO ₃ ^? through leaching or denitrification. The depth of ¹⁵N injection did not significantly alter concentrations of ¹⁵NH ₄ ⁺ –N, ¹⁵NO ₃ ^? –N, mineral ¹⁵N, and immobilized ¹⁵N in the NF and HP soils, suggesting that the depth of ¹⁵N injection had no significant influence on the evaluation of soil N transformations.

Conclusions

The NF litters had significantly higher total N and δ ¹⁵N and lower C/N ratios and δ ¹³C than the HP litters. Mineral N was relatively insufficient in the HP soil relative to the NF soil. The HP litters facilitated more N immobilization in the soil to reduce the loss of substantial quantities of NO ₃ ^? through leaching or denitrification. The depth of ¹⁵N added did not significantly alter concentrations of ¹⁵NH ₄ ⁺ –N, ¹⁵NO ₃ ^? –N, mineral ¹⁵N, and immobilized ¹⁵N in the NF and HP soils. The application of ¹⁵N solution by uniform sprinkling onto the soil surface can be used to study in situ field N (including mineral ¹⁵N) transformations in the 10-cm depth soils of both forest ecosystems.     

黄土丘陵区人工刺槐林恢复过程中土壤氮素与微生物活性的变化

为了探讨不同生长年限的人工刺槐(Robinnia pseudoacacia)林对土壤中氮素组成与微生物活性的影响及机理,本文采用"时空互代"法进行野外选点调查和采样,对典型黄土丘陵区陕西省安塞纸坊沟小流域不同林龄(10 a、15 a、30 a、38 a)人工刺槐林和撂荒地3个土层(0~10 cm、10~30 cm和30~60 cm)中的全氮、铵态氮、硝态氮、有机氮、微生物生物量碳和磷、基础呼吸及基本理化性质进行了研究。结果表明:人工刺槐林地土壤微生物生物量碳、磷含量和微生物熵都显著高于撂荒地(P<0.05)。随着人工刺槐林生长年限的增加,各层土壤铵态氮、硝态氮和有机氮含量均逐渐增加,其中有机氮的增加最显著;土壤微生物生物量碳、磷含量显著增加;微生物熵显著增大而呼吸熵显著减小;土壤有机碳、速效磷含量总体上显著增加(P<0.05);容重和碳氮比则呈下降趋势。随着土层深度的增加,氮素、有机碳、速效磷和微生物生物量碳、磷含量显著减小(P<0.05);容重和pH显著增加。土壤微生物生物量碳、磷和呼吸熵均与有机氮、全氮、硝态氮显著正相关(P<0.05)。分析发现,刺槐的生长促使土壤中微生物可利用碳增加,提高了碳的利用率,使土壤微生物量碳、磷含量增加;微生物活性的提高反过来促进了土壤氮素含量的提高,土壤中有机氮含量显著增加。与10 a生刺槐林相比,30 a生林地土壤表层的全氮含量明显增加,氮素肥力由7级(0.40 g.kg 1)上升为5级(0.87 g.kg 1)水平。