Forest road design with soil sediment evaluation using a high-resolution DEM

In this study, we combined a program to optimize forest road alignments with a method for prediction of surface erosion and related sediment delivered to streams. Combining the forest road design program with the high-resolution digital elevation model made it possible to estimate soil sediment based on a standard methodology, because a relatively accurate road prism could be generated. The combined program properly places and spaces drainage structures based on the Washington State Forest practice board manual. We applied the program to a part of Capitol State Forest in Washington State and optimized horizontal and vertical alignments while estimating movement of soil sediment from roads to streams. We discussed the effects of road surface materials, near-stream culvert distance to stream, and out-sloped forest road template on total road costs and soil sediment delivered to streams. Using lower quality rock surfacing reduced total costs, but the amount of soil sediment from lower quality rock surfacing was 1.5 times more than that on a higher quality rock traction surface. Therefore, lower quality rock surfacing should not be used near the stream. The placement of near-stream culverts 15 m upstream and out-sloped road template were examined using a traction surface on 15-m sections upstream and lower quality rock surfacing on other sections in order to reduce soil sediments to the stream and total costs. As a result, placing near-stream culverts 15 m upstream and using an out-sloped road template significantly reduced total road cost and soil sediment. Finally, we optimized horizontal and vertical alignments while limiting soil sediment to a specified maximum level. The model successfully optimized forest road alignments, which reduced total road cost as well as soil sediment.     

Effects of roads,topography, and land use on forest cover dynamics in the Brazilian Atlantic Forest

Roads and topography can determine patterns of land use and distribution of forest cover, particularly in tropical regions. We evaluated how road density, land use, and topography affected forest fragmentation, deforestation and forest regrowth in a Brazilian Atlantic Forest region near the city of São Paulo. We mapped roads and land use/land cover for three years (1962, 1981 and 2000) from historical aerial photographs, and summarized the distribution of roads, land use/land cover and topography within a grid of 94 non-overlapping 100 ha squares. We used generalized least squares regression models for data analysis. Our models showed that forest fragmentation and deforestation depended on topography, land use and road density, whereas forest regrowth depended primarily on land use. However, the relationships between these variables and forest dynamics changed in the two studied periods; land use and slope were the strongest predictors from 1962 to 1981, and past (1962) road density and land use were the strongest predictors for the following period (1981–2000). Roads had the strongest relationship with deforestation and forest fragmentation when the expansions of agriculture and buildings were limited to already deforested areas, and when there was a rapid expansion of development, under influence of São Paulo city. Furthermore, the past (1962) road network was more important than the recent road network (1981) when explaining forest dynamics between 1981 and 2000, suggesting a long-term effect of roads. Roads are permanent scars on the landscape and facilitate deforestation and forest fragmentation due to increased accessibility and land valorization, which control land-use and land-cover dynamics. Topography directly affected deforestation, agriculture and road expansion, mainly between 1962 and 1981. Forest are thus in peril where there are more roads, and long-term conservation strategies should consider ways to mitigate roads as permanent landscape features and drivers facilitators of deforestation and forest fragmentation.     

The impact of road disturbance on vegetation and soil properties in a beech stand,Hyrcanian forest

The ‘road-effect zone’ is a concept developed to describe the impact of road construction on the surrounding area. Although many aspects of the road-effect zone have been investigated, the road-effect zone on soil properties (pH, bulk density, soil moisture, electrical conductivity, organic matter (%), C (%), total N (%), available Na, Ca, Mg, P, and K), light regimes (leaf area index and canopy cover), and a Raunkiaer’s life-form classification of plants remains poorly understood, especially in oriental beech (Fagus orientalis Lipsky) forests. Hence, the main aims of this research were to estimate the extent of the road-effect zone and to identify the main environmental changes due to forest roads. Specifically, we aimed to evaluate road-effects on: (1) the composition of herbaceous species and tree regeneration (up to 100 m distance from the forest road); (2) the light regime; and (3) soil properties, potentially related to changes in ecosystem functions and composition. We observed that forest roads can have significant impacts on soil, stand characteristics, and vegetation composition. The estimated road-effect zone extended up to 30 m from the road edge. Landscape planners should be aware that road-effect zones can potentially influence the ecology and environmental conditions of an area up to 30 m from the road edge.     

Runoff,sediment loss and water quality from forest roads in a southeast Queensland coastal plain Pinus plantation

Runoff and sediment loss from forest roads were monitored for a two-year period in a Pinus plantation in southeast Queensland. Two classes of road were investigated: a gravelled road, which is used as a primary daily haulage route for the logging area, and an ungravelled road, which provides the main access route for individual logging compartments and is intensively used as a haulage route only during the harvest of these areas (approximately every 30 years). Both roads were subjected to routine traffic loads and maintenance during the study. Surface runoff in response to natural rainfall was measured and samples taken for the determination of sediment and nutrient (total nitrogen, total phosphorus, dissolved organic carbon and total iron) loads from each road.Results revealed that the mean runoff coefficient (runoff depth/rainfall depth) was consistently higher from the gravelled road plot with 0.57, as compared to the ungravelled road with 0.38. Total sediment loss over the two-year period was greatest from the gravelled road plot at 5.7 t km⁻¹ compared to the ungravelled road plot with 3.9 t km⁻¹. Suspended solids contributed 86% of the total sediment loss from the gravelled road, and 72% from the ungravelled road over the two years. Nitrogen loads from the two roads were both relatively constant throughout the study, and averaged 5.2 and 2.9 kg km⁻¹ from the gravelled and ungravelled road, respectively. Mean annual phosphorus loads were 0.6 kg km⁻¹ from the gravelled road and 0.2 kg km⁻¹ from the ungravelled road. Organic carbon and total iron loads increased in the second year of the study, which was a much wetter year, and are thought to reflect the breakdown of organic matter in roadside drains and increased sediment generation, respectively.When road and drain maintenance (grading) was performed runoff and sediment loss were increased from both road types. Additionally, the breakdown of the gravel road base due to high traffic intensity during wet conditions resulted in the formation of deep (10 cm) ruts which increased erosion.The Water Erosion Prediction Project (WEPP):Road model was used to compare predicted to observed runoff and sediment loss from the two road classes investigated. For individual rainfall events, WEPP:Road predicted output showed strong agreement with observed values of runoff and sediment loss. WEPP:Road predictions for annual sediment loss from the entire forestry road network in the study area also showed reasonable agreement with the extrapolated observed values.     

Stand structure and plant species occurrence in forest edge habitat along different aged roads on Okinawa Island, southwestern Japan

We compared stand structure and plant species occurrence on the shoulders of 3-, 10- and 20-year-old roads in a subtropical evergreen broad-leaved forest to document temporal changes in edge effects of forest roads. We recorded 154 vascular species in the study plots, including 3 non-native species. We used generalized linear mixed models to analyze changes in forest structure and plant species composition in relationship to the distance from forest roads. The spatial patterns in stand structure at different distances from roads differed with road age. The large canopy openness on the edge of 3-year-old roads decreased with time after the construction. A progressive decrease in tree height on roadsides was observed after the road construction, suggesting tall trees could not withstand the dry and windy roadside environment. The edge effect on the canopy tended to be larger at higher elevation sites. The spatio-temporal pattern of species occurrence based on distance from roads differed by species. Typical pioneer species such as Schima wallichii and Eurya japonica increased along the edge, while less aggressive pioneer species and understory species decreased. As time passed after the road construction, some climax and understory species decreased at the forest edge, while other climax and understory species increased. The modeling methods proposed in this study could be applied to different roadside and edge study sites.     

Forest fire risk assessment in parts of Northeast India using geospatial tools

Forest fire is a major cause of changes in forest structure and function. Among various floristic regions, the northeast region of India suffers maximum from the fires due to age-old practice of shifting culti- vation and spread of fires from jhum fields. For proper mitigation and management, an early warning of forest fires through risk modeling is required. The study results demonstrate the potential use of remote sens- ing and Geographic Information System (GIS) in identifying forest fire prone areas in Manipur, southeastern part of Northeast India. Land use land cover (LULC), vegetation type, Digital elevation model (DEM), slope, aspect and proximity to roads and settlements, factors that influ- ence the behavior of fire, were used to model the forest fire risk zones. Each class of the layers was given weight according to their fire inducing capability and their sensitivity to fire. Weighted sum modeling and ISODATA clustering was used to classify the fire zones. To validate the results, Along Track Scanning Radiometer (ATSR), the historical fire hotspots data was used to check the occurrence points and modeled forest fire locations. The forest risk zone map has 55 63% of agreement with ATSR dataset.     

Grizzly bears and forestry: I: Road vegetation and placement as an attractant to grizzly bears

Today's growing demand for timber is increasing road development in once roadless forest ecosystems. Roads create both local changes in plant communities and landscape-level changes in forest connectivity. Roads also increase human access, which can be detrimental to species such as grizzly bears. Because most grizzly bear mortalities occur near roads, we examined grizzly bear attractants near roads, which could increase bear use of roadsides and consequently increase human/grizzly bear interactions. We measured the prevalence of 16 grizzly bear foods near roads and examined patterns in road placement to better understand use of roaded habitats by grizzly bears in west-central Alberta. We found that roadsides had a higher frequency of ants, Equisetum spp., Taraxicum officinale, Trifolium spp., graminoids, and sedges; whereas, interior forest stands had a higher frequency of Shepherdia canadensis, Vaccinium myrtilloides, V. vitis-idaea, and ungulate pellets, an indicator of ungulate presence. In addition, roads near water had a greater occurrence of Arctostaphylos uva-ursi and Equisetum spp. than roads not near water, indicating that road placement influenced bear food diversity. Patterns in road placement varied between the upper and lower foothills, although models for the lower foothills predicted road placement in both regions. In the lower foothills, roads were constructed at low elevation, low soil moisture, high sun exposure, and intermediate terrain ruggedness, possibly similar to sites selected by bears. Reducing grizzly bear foods near roads should involve decreasing the width of roadside ditches, banning the planting of clover (Trifolium spp.), and reevaluating road placement in areas with high grizzly bear density.     

Characteristics of runoff and sediment generation of forest vegetation on a hill slope by use of artificial rainfall apparatus

We studied the impact of forest vegetation on soil erosion,surface runoff, and sediment generation by using field simulated rainfall apparatus. We measured runoff and sediment generation of five 4.5 × 2.1m runoff plots (a bare soil as a control; two Pinus tabulaeformis forestplots and two Platycladus orientalis forest with row spacing of 1 m × 1m and 1.5 m × 1.5 m, respectively) in Beijing Jiu Feng National ForestPark under three rainfall intensities (0.42, 0.83, 1.26 mm per minute).Forest vegetation significantly reduced soil erosion and sediment yield.Mean total runoff volume in the four tree stand plots was 93% of that inthe control plot, demonstrating the limited effectiveness of forest vegetation in runoff control. With increasing rainfall intensity, runoff reductionin forest plots declined from 28.32% to 2.1%. Similar trends in runoff coefficient and the relationship between runoff volume and rainfall duration was observed. Mean total sediment yield and mean sediment yield reduction rate under different treatments was 55.05% and 43.17% of those in the bare soil control plot, respectively. Rainfall intensity playedan important role in runoff and sediment generation processes, and had agreater impact on runoff than on soil erosion and sediment generation.When considering several factors in runoff and sediment transport processes, the P. tabulae form plot with row spacing at 1 × 1 m had a greater effect on soil and water conservation than did other forested plots.     

澳大利亚林区道路发展及启示

澳大利亚森林资源丰富,林区道路建设历史悠久,密集而发达的林区道路及其现有林道改进方案保证了澳大利亚森林道路的良性有序发展,保障了森林和木材资源的可持续、综合和有效利用。文中概述了澳大利亚林区道路发展现状,包括林区道路“用者自付”原则下的多元化投融资机制,以及林区道路的管理体制和机制、建设规划及建设规范等;分析了中国林业道路建设和发展的现状及问题;提出了我国林区道路建设需要促进投融资渠道多元化、重视林道规划和规程的规范化建设、注重维护生态社会与经济效益的统一等启示和建议。     

Ruffed grouse-habitat preference in the central and southern Appalachians

Ruffed grouse (Bonasa umbellus; hereafter grouse) populations in the central and southern Appalachians (CSA) are declining due to widespread maturation of forest cover. Effective management of this species requires a sex- and age-specific understanding of habitat preferences at multiple temporal and spatial scales. We used multivariate logistic regression models to compare habitat within 1440 grouse home ranges and 1400 equally sized buffered random points across 7 CSA study areas. On most sites, grouse home ranges were positively associated with roads and young forest (<20 years old). Sex and age status affected habitat preference. In general, males used younger forest than females, likely because of differences in habitat use during reproductive periods. Juveniles had fewer vegetation types preferred by adult grouse and more of the avoided vegetation types within their home ranges, indicative of competitive exclusion. Adult females had the greatest specificity and selectivity of habitat conditions within their home ranges. Habitat selection varied among seasons and years on most sites. Winter habitat use reflected behavior that maximized energy conservation, with open vegetation types avoided in the winter on the northernmost study areas, and topography important on all areas. Summer habitat selection reflected vegetation types associated with reproductive activities. Scale influenced habitat preference as well. Although roads and forest age predominantly influenced grouse home range location within the landscape, mesic forest types were most important in determining core area use within the home range. This was likely a result of increased food availability and favorable microclimate. Habitat management efforts should attempt to maintain ∼3–4% of the landscape in young forest cover (<20 years old), evenly distributed across management areas. Roads into these areas should be seeded as appropriate to enhance brood habitat and provide travel corridors connecting suitable forest stands.     

谈林区公路中涵洞位置的设计

本对林区公路涵洞位置提出了几种设计方法。即（１）逢沟设涵;（２）改移河槽;（３）截弯曲直;（４）特殊情况下的涵洞设计。     

基于GIS的清城区林地生态敏感性评价研究

本文结合广东省清远市清城区林地利用保护规划,利用数字化的地形数据和森林资源调查资料,在 GIS技术的支持下,选取并分析高程、坡度、坡向、植被覆盖类型、植被覆盖度、水域6个生态敏感性评价因子,采用模糊数学方法确定各评价因子的生态敏感性程度,对清城区林地生态敏感性进行评价。研究结果表明：研究区内各生态敏感性区面积比分别为高度敏感区（18.5％）、中度敏感区（11.1％）、低度敏感区（70.4％）,前两者占总面积的29.6％,低度敏感区占到70.4％且分布集中连片,表明研究区抗干扰能力强,不易出现植被退化、大规模森林景观破坏、水土流失等生态环境问题。     

国道网路域森林覆盖时空变化及驱动力分析

基于2000—2017年森林变化数据集、气象数据和社会经济数据,采用邻域分析、统计分析和多元逻辑回归分析对我国国道网路域森林植被变化特征及其驱动力机制进行了系统地分析。结果表明:空间上,我国国道路域森林覆盖具有显著的随着与道路距离增大逐渐减小的净丧失的梯度变化特征,国道的影响域为道路两侧0~2700 m范围,具体表现为:恢复率、丧失率和总变化率在影响域内随距离增大而增大,在影响域外随距离增大而减小,净丧失率在影响域内、外均随距离增大而减小;国道影响域森林丧失率有明显的省市自治区分区差异特点,华东和华南地区高于全国平均,华北、华中、西南、西北和东北地区低于全国平均;同属一个分区的不同省份国道影响域森林丧失率高低也有较大差异,各省份国道影响域森林丧失率梯度变化规律显著性程度不同。时间上,近17 a,我国国道影响域森林丧失总体呈波动上升趋势,尤其在2015年后丧失率出现较大增长;而华北、华中、东北地区国道影响域森林丧失率在2008年后出现逐年波动下降趋势。气象水文条件和本底森林覆盖度是造成国道影响域森林丧失差异的主要原因,地形地理、气象水文、人类活动等因素对国道影响域森林丧失影响的协同作用与距离因素无明显相关性。     

Does the effect of forest roads extend a few meters or more into the adjacent forest? A study on understory plant diversity in managed oak stands

Roads are recognised as having different ecological roles such as barrier, corridor or habitat, but the spatial extent of road effects on plant communities in forests remains unclear. We studied the effect of forest road distance on plant understory diversity at 20 sites in young and adult oak stands in a French lowland forest with a long history of management and road construction. All vascular and bryophyte species were collected at five distances ranging from the road verge to 100 m into the adjacent forest stand. We analysed species composition, individual species response, a priori life-history traits response – life form, habitat preference and dispersal mode – and environmental indicator values in relation to road distance and stand age. Plant composition strongly differed between road verge and forest interior habitats. The main road effect extended less than 5 m into the forest stand. A third habitat was detected at the forest-road edge resulting from the road effect on light and soil conditions, and from edge-specific topography. Non-forest species were almost absent from the forest interior. In contrast, many bryophytes and several vascular plants kept away from the road. We identified a posteriori six species groups that better explained the variability of plant response profiles than a priori life-history traits. Plant response to road distance was also dependent on stand age: some species colonised from the road into the forest interior in young stands following regeneration cutting, while other species displayed the reverse pattern in adult stands once canopy closed above the forest road. Even if the depth of forest road effect measured in lowland managed stands was narrow, building of a new forest road has non-negligible effects on plant population dynamics. Forest managers should take into account the impacts of roads on biodiversity, since the expected intensification of silviculture in response to global changes is set to accentuate the effect of forest roads. We recommend further study on the role of dispersal by vehicles (i.e. agestochory) in road effects.     

不同等级道路网络对常宁市景观格局生态效应的影响

针对常宁市域范围,利用GIS和Fragstat软件,通过建立缓冲区并进行情景分析,分析了不同等级道路对景观格局的影响。结果表明:常宁市内一级道路所影响面积最大,二级道路最小,而影响的斑块数目则为三级路一级路二级路高速路,受影响生态面积为水田灌木林地茶园旱地其他建筑用地有林地水体住宅用地其他林地疏林地裸地果园其他园地,受影响斑块数目最高为灌木林地,其次为水田。情景分析表明,随着道路的建设,斑块分维数升高,但总体上,高等级道路对景观形状指数和斑块形状因子升高的贡献率最小。     

Consequences of an Improved Road Network in Rural Iran: Does it Lead to Better Livelihoods and Forest Protection?

Construction of new roads in rural areas is closely linked to market accessibility and economic growth. It also leads to exploitation of natural resources that may accelerate deforestation. These conflicting effects of an improved road network on rural development and depletion of forest resources present a serious challenge to policy makers interested in sustainable development. This paper investigates the effects of road networks on biological and socio-economic behaviour. The analysis was conducted by using a non-linear bio-economic model for a community in southern Zagros, Iran where they manage the adjoining forest according to traditional rules. Data for the model were obtained through village surveys and published resources. The model followed a holistic approach by incorporating a number of livelihood activities, such as, crop cultivation, goat husbandry, charcoal production and hiring out of community labour, along with several logical resource constraints. It was run over a period of 45 years. The results showed that new roads can either fuel forest degradation or contribute to forest protection depending on the choice of policy options. The study concludes that construction of new roads should be accompanied by policies aimed at higher state controls over newly accessible forest areas through regulatory measures, creation of new non-farm employment opportunities and strengthening of traditional institutions through providing extension services for local communities and facilitating NGO involvement so as to minimize the adverse effects on forest resources.     

Sedimentation associated with forest road surfacing in a bottomland hardwood ecosystem

Access systems are a necessary element of resource production in bottomland hardwood sites. However, road building may have a detrimental effect on hydrologic function of the site. This report describes initial results of a study designed to examine the effect of different road surfacing treatments on water quality.

Four surfacing treatments installed on two test roads included native soil, native soil with vegetative stabilization, 6 cm of gravel, and 15 cm of gravel over geotextile. During the first flooding season periodic sampling measured floodwater suspended sediments and location of erosion and sediment deposition within the road prism. Initial results suggest that sediment movement was confined to the road right-of-way, with no statistically significant sedimentation effects detected beyond the clearing limits of the road. The study is continuing for another field season.     

Riparian trees,shrubs, and forest regeneration in the coastal mountains of Oregon

Riparian trees and shrubs are important providers of shade, bank stability, and woody debris needed for optimal stream quality and fish habitat in the coastal mountains of Oregon, but more data are needed to relate this woody vegetation to environmental variables. Trees, shrubs, and forest regeneration were studied in 22 riparian environments to provide those data. Conifer basal area increased with elevation, stream gradient, time since disturbance, and distance from the stream; it decreased with stream width. Salmonberry (Rubus spectabilis Pursh) cover and stink currant (Ribes bracteosum Dougl. ex Hook.) cover were highest near the streams. Dwarf Oregon grape (Berberis nervosa Pursh) cover and salal (Gaultheria shallon Pursh) cover were lowest near the streams. Although forest regeneration was poor everywhere, it decreased with total shrub cover and increased with stream gradient. Existing riparian conifer stands should be maintained wherever a continuing supply of coarse woody debris is required.     

Changes in benthic macroinvertebrate communities in upper catchment streams across a gradient of catchment forest operation history

The effects of forest harvesting on wet eucalypt forest stream macroinvertebrates were examined in Tasmania, Australia. Sites were selected in second to fourth order streams across a gradient of catchment forest harvesting history and in paired reference catchments. Historical data for every forest parcel (coupe) were obtained for each catchment, detailing forest operational type, area and year of operation, length of roads and number of stream road crossings.     

基于GF-1和TM数据的金河林业局天然林保护成效评估研究

[目的]利用遥感影像的特点,将地表覆盖类型和植被覆盖度作为天然林保护成效评估的研究指标,提出一种评估天然林保护成效的方法。[方法]首先,分析GF-1遥感影像特点,结合TM影像特点,研究针对GF-1遥感影像的处理和分析技术;其次,选择评估天然林保护成效评估的指标;再次,选取内蒙古金河林业局作为试验区,对试验区的地表覆盖类型变化、植被覆盖度变化进行分析,结合现地调查数据进行验证,从而评估天然林保护成效。[结果]基于采用分类后比较法能够有效检测出地表覆盖类型变化,经验证检测精度能够达到90%以上;归一化植被指数结合像元二分模型能够用于复杂地表植被覆盖度的反演,经野外实测数据验证精度可达到83%。[结论]根据地表覆盖类型变化监测和植被覆盖度变化监测结果,金河林业局天然林保护工程实施以来实现了森林资源由过度消耗向恢复性增长转变。