基于GPS和GIS的田间土壤特性空间变异性的研究

以一块面积约为13.3 hm²的冬小麦田为研究区，利用GPS接收机定位，按50 m×50 m设置网格，共取63个采样点，测定土壤表层(20 cm)内的土壤有机质、全氮、碱解氮、速效磷、速效钾、容重、田间土壤含水率和电导率，研究麦田土壤特性的空间变异规律。采用传统统计学和地统计学相结合的方法对所取的数据进行了分析，利用Arcview3.2软件的空间分析功能，绘制了表达这些土壤特性随机性和结构性的半方差图和空间分布图。研究结果表明：所有土壤特性均服从正态分布；土壤容重具有弱变异强度，其它土壤特性具有中等变异强度；土壤有机质、全氮、碱解氮、速效钾和电导率具有很强的相关性，土壤容重、速效磷和含水率具有中等强度的空间相关性，土壤特性的相关距变化范围为246.8～426.8 m。该成果可为农田的定位施肥、灌溉以及其它的农田精细管理提供依据。     

Comparing sampling needs for variograms of soil properties computed by the method of moments and residual maximum likelihood

It has been generally accepted that the method of moments (MoM) variogram, which has been widely applied in soil science, requires about 100 sites at an appropriate interval apart to describe the variation adequately. This sample size is often larger than can be afforded for soil surveys of agricultural fields or contaminated sites. Furthermore, it might be a much larger sample size than is needed where the scale of variation is large. A possible alternative in such situations is the residual maximum likelihood (REML) variogram because fewer data appear to be required. The REML method is parametric and is considered reliable where there is trend in the data because it is based on generalized increments that filter trend out and only the covariance parameters are estimated. Previous research has suggested that fewer data are needed to compute a reliable variogram using a maximum likelihood approach such as REML, however, the results can vary according to the nature of the spatial variation. There remain issues to examine: how many fewer data can be used, how should the sampling sites be distributed over the site of interest, and how do different degrees of spatial variation affect the data requirements? The soil of four field sites of different size, physiography, parent material and soil type was sampled intensively, and MoM and REML variograms were calculated for clay content. The data were then sub-sampled to give different sample sizes and distributions of sites and the variograms were computed again. The model parameters for the sets of variograms for each site were used for cross-validation. Predictions based on REML variograms were generally more accurate than those from MoM variograms with fewer than 100 sampling sites. A sample size of around 50 sites at an appropriate distance apart, possibly determined from variograms of ancillary data, appears adequate to compute REML variograms for kriging soil properties for precision agriculture and contaminated sites.     

稻田土壤养分空间变异与合理取样数研究

以嘉善县陶庄农场内一块0.52hm2的水稻田为研究区,采用地统计方法和常规统计方法进行土壤pH及养分(全氮、全碳、速效钾、速效磷、速效镁、速效锰、速效铜、速效锌)的空间变异及其合理取样数目研究。结果表明,各土壤养分在田间尺度均存在一定的空间变异,全氮、全碳、速效钾、速效磷等主要养分的空间格局呈南北向条带状,与农户经营田块的方向基本一致;不同农户耕种、管理下的4田块的土壤养分差异显著;反映土壤肥力的土壤全碳、全氮等养分的合理取样数目在95%的置信度和5%的相对误差条件下为45～个,基本上每个农户经营田块为1个,即可反映土壤养分的真实情况。因此,试验区以N素管理为主的精确田间管理的土壤采样可以采用以农户经营地块为单位的混合样采样方式,以减少土壤采样量和分析成本。     

Upper Profile Changes Over Time in an Appalachian Hayfield Soil Amended with Coal Combustion By‐products

Abstract

Large amounts of flue gas desulfurization (FGD) and fluidized bed combustion (FBC) by‐products from burning coal, consisting primarily of gypsum, are available for potential use as a soil amendment. However, information is limited on longer‐term changes in chemical and physical properties induced over time and over small depth increments of the upper soil profile after applying these amendments. This study examined longer‐term effects in an abandoned Appalachian pasture soil amended with various liming materials and coal combustion by‐products (CCBPs). Soil chemical and physical properties were investigated over time and depths. The results indicated limited dissolution and movement of the calcium (Ca) and magnesium (Mg) applied with the chemical amendments, except for Ca and Mg associated with sulfate. However, sufficient dissolution occurred to cause significant increases in exchangeable Ca and Mg and decreases in exchangeable Al that were reflected in corresponding increases in soil pH. These beneficial effects persisted over time and were confined to the upper 0‐ to 15‐cm depth of the profile. The greatest benefits appeared to be in the upper 0‐ to 5‐cm surface layer. Both Ca and Mg applied as calcitic dolomitic limestone tended to be immobilized in the upper 0‐ to 5‐cm layer of the soil profile; Ca more so than Mg. The presence of S applied in the FGD and FBC amendments appeared to enhance the mobility of Ca and Mg. The ratio of Ca/Mg in HCI extracts from the calcitic dolomitic treatment was close to that of applied calcitic dolomite, implying that the inactive component in soil might be the original calcitic dolomite particles. Soil physical properties measured over small depth increments showed that application of the amendments improved the saturated hydraulic conductivity only in the upper 0‐ to 5‐cm depth and had little or no significant effect on the dry bulk density and plant‐available water.     

广元植烟土壤有效态微量元素的空间变异特征及影响因素

为揭示广元植烟区土壤有效态微量元素含量空间变异特征及影响因素,采用地统计学、相关分析及回归分析等研究方法,结合地理信息系统(GIS)技术对研究区土壤有效铁、锰、铜、锌钼及硼等6种土壤有效态微量元素进行分析。结果表明,研究区土壤有效铁、锰及铜含量丰富,总体处于中等以上水平;有效钼含量适中;有效锌和硼缺乏,总体处于缺乏或极度缺乏水平。半方差分析表明,6种土壤有效态微量元素块金系数均在29.72%~67.59%之间,具有中等强度的空间自相关性,其空间变异受结构性因素和随机性因素共同影响。空间分布上,土壤有效铁、锰、铜及钼含量表现出北高南低的空间分布趋势,土壤有效锌和硼含量呈现出西高东低的空间分布格局。影响因素分析表明,6种土壤有效态微量元素与土壤有机质呈正相关,与p H值呈负相关,相关性总体高于地形因子。土壤有机质对有效铁、铜、锌及硼有极显著影响,其空间变异性为5.5%~27.2%。除有效锌外,土壤p H值对其余5种土壤有效态微量元素含量空间变异均有极显著影响,其空间变异性为5.0%~30.4%。土类对土壤有效铁、锰及铜有极显著影响,其空间变异性8.4%~12.3%。熟制和种植制度对6种土壤有效态微量元素含量空间变异的影响较弱,进一步说明研究区土壤有效态微量元素含量空间变异受结构性因素和随机性因素共同影响,但结构性因素的作用强于随机性因素。本研究结果为广元植烟区土壤微肥施肥管理及优质烤烟栽培提供了可靠的参考依据。     

基于GIS宁夏引黄灌区农地土壤综合养分状况评价

精准农业是未来农业的发展方向,查清田块内部的土壤性状与生产力空间变异,是精准农业的基础研究内容。以宁夏引黄灌区灵武农场的农地为例,运用ArcGIS进行空间数据采集、处理、分析,并采用主成分分析法确定评价因素的权重值,运用模糊数学方法建立各个评价因子对土壤养分状况的隶属函数,最后计算了综合养分状况的评分并利用指数和法得到最终的土壤养分状况评价值,根据综合评价值划分土壤养分状况等级,利用ArcGIS软件进行克里格插值得到最终土壤综合养分状况评价图。从具体评价结果可以看出,土壤综合养分状况由西北向东南降低的趋势明显。西角北角为两个极端高值区域,东角南角为两个极端低值区域。     

土壤水分预测神经网络模型和时间序列模型比较研究

土壤水分运动是一个复杂的时间序列系统，其变化与区域气候条件和生态环境密切相关，具有明显的随机性波动。建立土壤水分动态变化模型可以使田间土壤水分的适时适量调节方便可行，有利于农田水利工程的规划和管理。该文利用人工神经网络方法和时间序列自回归(AR)模型进行了土壤水分预测建模研究，试验结果表明：在数据量较少的情况下，AR模型具有较好的预测效果；在数据量较多的情况下，神经网络模型能够获得较好的预测效果。     

Modelling spatial uncertainty of soil erodibility factor using joint stochastic simulation

Soil erosion varies greatly over space and is commonly estimated using the revised universal soil loss equation (RUSLE). Neglecting information about estimation uncertainty, however, may lead to improper decision‐making. One geostatistical approach to spatial analysis is joint stochastic simulation, which draws alternative, equally probable, joint realizations of a regionalized variable. Differences between the realizations provide a measure of spatial uncertainty and allow us to carry out an error propagation analysis. The objective of this paper was to assess spatial uncertainty of a soil erodibility factor (K) model resulting from the uncertainties in the input parameters (texture and organic matter). The 500 km² study area was located in central‐eastern Sardinia (Italy) and 152 samples were collected. A Monte Carlo analysis was performed where spatial cross‐correlation information through joint turning bands simulation was incorporated. A linear coregionalization model was fitted to all direct and cross‐variograms of the input variables, which included three different structures: a nugget effect, a spherical structure with a shorter range (3500 m) and a spherical structure with a longer range (10 000 m). The K factor was then estimated for each set of the 500 joint realizations of the input variables, and the ensemble of the model outputs was used to infer the soil erodibility probability distribution function. This approach permitted delineation of the areas characterized by greater uncertainty, to improve supplementary sampling strategies and K value predictions. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

曲靖烟区土壤有效中量元素的空间变异特征及影响因子研究

为研究曲靖烟区土壤有效中量元素的空间分布特征及其影响因素,本文采用GPS技术在曲靖烟区采集2088个土壤样品,利用原子吸收分光光度法测定样品有效钙、有效镁和有效硫含量,利用地统计学和经典统计学分析了3种有效中量元素的空间变异特征及其影响因素,以为曲靖烟区土壤中量元素科学有效地分区管理及烤烟合理施肥提供依据.结果表明,曲...     

OPTIMAL INTERPOLATION AND ISARITHMIC MAPPING OF SOIL PROPERTIES

Soil properties mapped in two intensive surveys had large nugget variances, leading to large estimation variances and erratic isarithms when mapped by punctual kriging. It is likely that both surveyors and survey clients are interested in average values of soil properties over areas rather than point values, and such values can be obtained by block kriging. Estimation variances are very much smaller, and maps of sodium and stone content at Plas Gogerddan, Central Wales, kriged over blocks 920m², and thickness of cover loam at Hole Farm, Norfolk, kriged over blocks of 400m², are much smoother than the punctually kriged maps. The map of Hole Farm has a distinct and meaningful regional pattern.     

Geostatistical analysis of cyst nematodes in soil

The numbers of cyst nematodes that live in agricultural soil vary both in time and space with important consequences when devising procedures for inspection and strategies for their control. We have examined the distributions of two species, Globodera rostochiensis and Hererodera avenue, in fields in the east of Scotland by counting their live cysts in the topsoil. Nested sampling and analysis showed that most of the spatial variation occurs within distances of 5 m to 50 m. Experimental variograms computed from transects and grid surveys appeared to be isotropic and bounded with a range of approximately 60 m. Both species are strongly aggregated. H. avenue occurred in large patches. Indicators for cyst counts of 1, 4 and 10 were created from the data. The experimental auto and cross variograms of these indicators were computed and models fitted to them. All of these variograms had the same spherical form as that of the original counts but shorter ranges, and the cross variograms had more structure, suggesting a border effect. Biologically, the distribution can be explained by the nematodes being spread by cultivation from initial fortuitous foci of infestation or control by nematophagous fungi or both.     

Sampling procedure simulating on‐the‐go sensing for soil nutrients

The emergence of a new sensor technology based on the use of ion‐selective membranes provides an increasing number of opportunities for on‐the‐go field measurements of soil nutrients and soil pH. In the future, on‐the‐go sensing should provide a cost‐effective monitoring of heterogeneous soils with high sampling resolution. It is suitable for site‐specific management because it can be focused on the spatial representativity of observation. This study evaluates the on‐the‐go‐sensing sampling design by comparing it with a standard approach to soil sampling for soil pH and the base nutrients P, K, and Mg under local field conditions in Germany. Soil samples were taken in two test sites at a resolution and in a manner as if they were sampled with an on‐the‐go sensing system and were compared with soil samples taken at a coarser resolution and with standard methods. In general, a higher variability was observed among the on‐the‐go samples due to their smaller sample support. The finer sampling resolution of the on‐the‐go design improved field‐scale semivariogram‐analysis results, identifying the spatial structures for soil pH, P, and Mg clearly. In addition, kriged maps of these soil parameters had predominantly higher estimation accuracies. However, the on‐the‐go samples were strongly influenced by the small‐scale variability of K in one of the test sites. This variability increased the kriging standard deviation for K by 50% compared with standard sampling design. Despite of this problem, the on‐the‐go‐sensing sampling design revealed field‐scale spatial variability for base nutrient status more accurately. Except for K, the mean absolute error of fertilizer‐application maps was reduced when using the on‐the‐go sample design in comparison with the standard sample design (Ca: 210/268 kg ha^–1, P: 2.85/6.75 kg ha^–1, K: 13.7/6.0 kg ha^–1, Mg 5.7/6.8 kg ha^–1). This will reduce over‐ and underfertilization using variable‐rate fertilizer‐application systems. In the future, it will be of interest if real on‐the‐go soil‐sensor measurements exhibit the same variability behavior addressed here or if results will differ substantially.     

苹果主产区土壤养分空间分布特征及其影响因素——以陕西省礼泉县为例

客观、定量化分析土壤养分空间异质性及其影响因素,可为作物精准施肥提供科学依据。本研究以陕西省礼泉县苹果产区为研究区,基于“S”形的样点布设法采集果园0~40 cm土层的土壤样品,运用地统计学和GIS研究了土壤有机质、碱解氮、速效钾和有效磷4种养分的预测精度,并通过交叉验证和相对预测误差确定最优预测模型,绘制果园土壤养分空间分布图,综合分析土壤养分空间分布特征,及结合相关性分析和多元线性回归分析,探讨土壤养分的影响因素及其权重。结果表明:1在最佳变异函数理论模型下,普通克里格法对果区土壤碱解氮的预测精度高,协同克里格对其他3种养分的预测精度高。2土壤有机质的空间分布格局是由骏马-阡东和建陵-昭陵一带向中部递减;赵镇至史德镇的东部为碱解氮的高值区,分别向东、北和西南递减;速效钾的高值区主要分布在研究区南部,北部大多数地区钾含量偏低;有效磷的高值区分布在烽火和骏马镇、石潭-昭陵镇一线。3有机质与地形因子具有显著相关性,碱解氮受NDVI、土壤类型和地形因子的影响,速效钾与当地坡度、坡向具有显著相关性,但有效磷与三大类因子的相关性不显著。     

Spatial Estimation of Soil Erosion Risk by Land‐cover Change in the Andes OF Southern Ecuador

Ecuador has the highest deforestation rate in South America, causing large‐scale soil erosion. Inter‐Andean watersheds are especially affected by a rapid increase of the population leading to the conversion of large areas of montane forest into pasture and cropland. In this study, we estimate soil erosion risk in a small mixed land‐use watershed in the southern Andes of Ecuador. Soil loss was estimated at a spatial resolution of 30 m, using the Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE) where the RUSLE factors were estimated on the basis of limited public available data. Land‐cover maps for 1976, 2008 and 2040 were created assuming increasing deforestation rates over the ensuing decades. Greater erosion rates are estimated for succession areas with agricultural cropland and pasture with maximum values of 936 Mg ha⁻¹ y⁻¹, where slopes and precipitation amounts are the greatest. Under natural forest vegetation, the estimated soil erosion rates are negligible (1·5 to 40 Mg ha⁻¹ y⁻¹) even at steep slopes and higher elevations where rainfall amounts and intensities are generally higher. When the entire watershed has undergone substantial deforestation in 2040, erosion values may reach 2,021 Mg ha⁻¹ y⁻¹. Vegetation cover is the most important factor for potential soil erosion. Secondary factors are related to rainfall (R‐factor) and topography (LS factors). Although the spatial predictions of potential soil erosion have only limited meaning for erosion risk, this method provides an important screening tool for land management and assessment of land‐cover change. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

土壤有机质空间变异与农用地自然质量关系研究

该文以广州市花都区赤坭镇为试验区,根据典型农用地类型的土壤采样基于Cokriging方法进行土壤有机质精确插值与空间变异分析,并将结果与农用地分等成果进行相关分析。结果表明,以土壤有机质和农用地类型为协因子的球状模型Cokriging总体插值精度最高,试验区内土壤有机质分布格局是四周丘陵和水库区含量较低,巴江河两岸的平原地区、西南角的山前冲积平原含量较高,这也是灌溉水田密集的区域;试验区内土壤有机质含量菜地分布比较均匀、空间相关性很强,而水浇地分布差异较大、空间变异性较高;土壤有机质分布在南北、东北-西南两个方向相关性较强具有各向同性特征,在东南-西北、东西方向具有各向异性特征,受到随机因素的影响变异性较大。土壤有机质Cokriging插值结果与试验区内农用地自然质量等指数的相关性很显著,菜地与农用地自然质量等指数相关性最强,灌溉水田其次,旱地最差。     

吉林省中部平原区土壤有效态中微量元素的空间变异特征

运用地统计学方法结合GIS技术研究了吉林省中部平原农业区土壤中微量元素的空间分布特征,通过对数转化、域法处理和Box-Cox转化3种数据处理方法对土壤有效钙、有效镁、有效硼、有效铜和有效锌进行了正态分布性检验。结果表明,Box-Cox转化成功地使有效钙、有效镁、有效铜、有效锌含量数据更好地服从正态分布,而域法处理能使有效硼含量数据更好地服从正态分布,削弱了异常值的影响。应用地统计学分析方法进行了半方差函数的计算和最适合模型的拟合,得出各元素最好的理论模型,并绘制了各养分元素的空间分布图。半方差分析的结果显示,各元素具有中等空间相关性。     

Fluctuations in method‐of‐moments variograms caused by clustered sampling and their elimination by declustering and residual maximum likelihood estimation

Soil data accumulated in national and regional archives derive from many sources and tend to be concentrated in zones of particular interest. Experimental variograms computed from such data by the usual method of moments can appear highly erratic, and therefore models fitted to them are likely to be unreliable. We have explored two methods of avoiding the effects, one by computing declustering weights and incorporating them into the method of moments, the other using residual maximum likelihood. The methods are illustrated with data on bulk density, exchangeable magnesium, cation exchange capacity and organic carbon of 4182 samples of soil from numerous soil surveys in the whole of Australia and stored in the CSIRO's national archive. The experimental variograms of all four variables are erratic. Cell declustering produced much smoother sequences of estimates to which plausible models could be fitted with confidence. The residual maximum likelihood models closely matched those models over several hundred km. Finally values were simulated at the same sampling points from the residual maximum likelihood models, reproducing ‘spiky’ experimental variograms such as those computed from the data. The simulation showed that clustered design of sampling causes spiky artefacts. We conclude that where data are clustered experimental variograms should be computed with declustered weighting or variogram models be fitted by residual maximum likelihood.     

The Representative Soil Sampling Scheme of England and Wales: a statistical analysis of topsoil nutrient status and pH between 1971 and 2001

The Representative Soil Sampling Scheme of England and Wales has recorded information on the soil of agricultural land in England and Wales since 1969. It is a valuable source of information about the soil in the context of monitoring for sustainable agricultural development. Changes in soil nutrient status and pH were examined over the period 1971–2001. Several methods of statistical analysis were applied to data from the surveys during this period. The main focus here is on the data for 1971, 1981, 1991 and 2001. The results of examining change over time in general show that levels of potassium in the soil have increased, those of magnesium have remained fairly constant, those of phosphorus have declined and pH has changed little. Future sampling needs have been assessed in the context of monitoring, to determine the mean at a given level of confidence and tolerable error and to detect change in the mean over time at these same levels over periods of 5 and 10 years. The results of a non‐hierarchical multivariate classification suggest that England and Wales could be stratified to optimize future sampling and analysis. To monitor soil quality and health more generally than for agriculture, more of the country should be sampled and a wider range of properties recorded.     

Limited Spatial Transferability of the Relationships Between Kriging Variance and Soil Sampling Spacing in Some Grasslands of Ireland: Implications for Sampling Design

Sampling plays an important role in acquiring precise soil information required in modern agricultural production worldwide, which determines both the cost and quality of final soil mapping products. For sampling design, it has been proposed possibile to transfer the relationships between kriging variance and sampling grid spacing from an area with existing information to other areas with similar soil-forming environments. However, this approach is challenged in practice because of two problems:i) different population variograms among similar areas and ii) sampling errors in estimated variograms. This study evaluated the effects of these two problems on the transferability of the relationships between kriging variance and sampling grid spacing, by using spatial data simulated with three variograms and soil samples collected from four grasslands in Ireland with similar soil-forming environments. Results showed that the variograms suggested by different samples collected with the same grid spacing in the same or similar areas were different, leading to a range of mean kriging variance (MKV) for each grid spacing. With increasing grid spacing, the variation of MKV for a specific grid spacing increased and deviated more from the MKV generated using the population variograms. As a result, the spatial transferability of the relationships between kriging variance and grid spacing for sampling design was limited.     

The analysis of ranked observations of soil structure using indicator geostatistics

Structure is an important physical feature of the soil that is associated with water movement, the soil atmosphere, microorganism activity and nutrient uptake. A soil without any obvious organisation of its components is known as apedal and this state can have marked effects on several soil processes. Accurate maps of topsoil and subsoil structure are desirable for a wide range of models that aim to predict erosion, solute transport, or flow of water through the soil. Also such maps would be useful to precision farmers when deciding how to apply nutrients and pesticides in a site-specific way, and to target subsoiling and soil structure stabilization procedures.

Typically, soil structure is inferred from bulk density or penetrometer resistance measurements and more recently from soil resistivity and conductivity surveys. To measure the former is both time-consuming and costly, whereas observations made by the latter methods can be made automatically and swiftly using a vehicle-mounted penetrometer or resistivity and conductivity sensors. The results of each of these methods, however, are affected by other soil properties, in particular moisture content at the time of sampling, texture, and the presence of stones. Traditional methods of observing soil structure identify the type of ped and its degree of development. Methods of ranking such observations from good to poor for different soil textures have been developed. Indicator variograms can be computed for each category or rank of structure and these can be summed to give the sum of indicator variograms (SIV).

Observations of the topsoil and subsoil structure were made at four field sites where the soil had developed on different parent materials. The observations were ranked by four methods and indicator and the sum of indicator variograms were computed and modelled for each method of ranking. The individual indicators were then kriged with the parameters of the appropriate indicator variogram model to map the probability of encountering soil with the structure represented by that indicator. The model parameters of the SIVs for each ranking system were used with the data to krige the soil structure classes, and the results are compared with those for the individual indicators. The relations between maps of soil structure and selected wavebands from aerial photographs are examined as basis for planning surveys of soil structure.