Influence of soil moisture on isoproturon activity against Alopecurus myosuroides

Alopecurus myosuroides Huds. (blackgrass) in sandy loam soil in pots was treated at the three-leaf stage with formulated isoproturon. Damage to plants resulted mainly from herbicide entry via the soil. When the soil moisture levels were maintained close to 50, 100 and 150% of field capacity (FC) throughout the experiment damage increased with the amount of water in the soil. After spraying plants raised at field capacity, change to 150 or 50% FC resulted in more and less damage respectively. Water applied to the soil surface compared with sub-irrigation caused more damage. A delay of up to 21 days between spraying plants in soil at field capacity and surface watering did not reduce damage provided the time interval between the onset of surface watering and assessment remained constant. A delay of 7 days between spraying isoproturon onto plants in dry soil (50% FC) and increasing the moisture to field capacity by surface watering decreased the damage to A. myosuroides. These results are discussed with reference to the soil moisture distribution in soil columns and rainfall patterns under field conditions.     

Some studies on the sites of uptake of chlortoluron, isoproturon and metoxuron by wheat, Avena fatua and Alopecurus myosuroïdes

Chlortoluron, isoproturon and metoxuron applied to wheat (Triticum aesitvum (L.)), A vena fatua (L.) and Alopecurus myosuroïdes (Huds) at sowing caused less damage if the herbicides were restricted to the region above the seed by an activated charcoal layer. AH three herbicides, when applied to seedlings of the same species also had their main activity through the soil, an activated charcoal layer at seed level decreasing damage from post-emergence sprays of isoproluron. Germination and/or establishment of A. myosuroïdes was better from seeds sown at or near the surface, hut the reverse was true for A. fatua, which showed weak germination and/or establishment from seed on the soil surface. Rechterches sur les sites d'absorption du chhrtoluron, de l'isoproturon et du métoxuron par le blé. A vena fatua et Alopecurus myosuroïdes Le chlortoluron, l'isoproturon et le métoxuron appliqués au semis sur du blé (Triticum avstivum (L.), Avena fatua (L.) et Alopecurus myosuroïdes (Huds.) ont causé moinsde dommages si les herbicides restaient localises dans la region située audessus des semences grâce à une couche de charbon activé. Les trois herbicides, lorsqu'ils furent appliqués aux plantules des mêmes cspèces, ont aussi exercé leur principale activitéà travers le sol; une couche de charbon active au nivcau des semences a dim inué les dommages provoques pour des traitements effectues avee de l'isoproturon en posttevée. La germination atnsi que l'etablissement d'A. myosuroïdes ont été meilleurs à partir de sentences semées en surface, ou prés de la surface mais ce fut l'inverse pour A. fatua qui montra une germination et un etablissement plus faibles lorsque le semis a été fait en surface. Untersuchungen zum Ort der Aufnahme von Chlortoluron. Isoproturon und Metoxuron bei Weizen, A vena falua und A lopecurus myosuroides Wenn Chlortoluron, Isoproturon und Metoxuron zu Weizen (Triticum aestivum (L.)), Arena fatua (L.) und Alopecurus myosuroïdes (Huds.) zum Zeitpunkt der Saat appliziert wurden, traten weniger Schäden auf. wenn die Herbizide durch eine Aktivkohlcschicht oberhalb der Samen verblieben. Auch wenn die Herbizide auf junge Pflänzchen appliziert wurden, wirkten sie hauptsachlich über den Boden Durch eine Aktivkohleschicht in der Samenzone wurde die Wirkung von Nachauflaufbehandlungen mil Isoproluron abgeschwächl. Bei A myosuroïdes war die Keimung und/oder das Wachstum besser, wenn sich die Samen auf oder nur knapp unterhalb der Bodenoberfläche befanden. Bei A. fatua was es urngekchrt, hier war die Keimung und/oder die Entwicklung nur schwach. wenn sich die Samen auf dem Boden befanden.     

The interaction between planting depth of four winter wheat cultivars, Alopecurus myosuroides Huds. and Bromus sterilis L. and their susceptibility to post-emergence applications of isoproturon and chlorotoluron

Seeds of four winter wheat cultivars, Slejpner, Galahad, Avalon and Penman, were sown at depths ranging from 6–75 mm in soil in pots, and isoproturon or chlorotoluron was then applied to the soil surface. For chlorotoluron-treated plants (both pre- and post-emergence) the dose required to produce a 50% effect (ED₅₀) was unaffected by depth of planting. In contrast, for isoproturon applied pre-emergence, the ED₅₀ for both Avalon and Slejpner was strongly affected by sowing depth. Although chlorotoluron was much more active in a second experiment when applied post-emergence to Slejpner wheat, the ED₅₀ for both herbicides increased with greater depth of sowing. Protection of wheat from isoproturon damage by deeper planting was enhanced if the adsorption capacity of the soil was raised from K_d 0.5 to 2.0 by incorporation of activated charcoal in the soil. Isoproturon entry into plants (as measured by the effect on rate of photosynthesis) was slower in those that had been sown deeper and were growing in more adsorptive soils, but there was no obvious relationship between these observations and isoproturon distribution in the soil profile. In nutrient culture the four wheat cultivars responded similarly to a range of doses of isoproturon. The chlorotoluron-sensitive cultivars, Slejpner and Galahad, were damaged by much lower doses of chlorotoluron than were Avalon and Penman. Bromus sterilis L. responded similarly to wheat with regard to its interaction with isoproturon and planting depth. Alopecurus myosuroides Huds., however, was less damaged by isoproturon when the zone above the seed was protected from the herbicide by growing the shoot through a plastic straw.     

大穗看麦娘与日本看麦娘的DNA条形码鉴定

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The survival of Alopecurus myosuroides Huds. seeds in soil

The survival of Alopecurus myosuroides seeds was studied in soil under arable cropping and short term grass leys in which seed return was prevented. At two winter wheat sites, where weed seeds were sown, the mean annual seed decline was 73–83% over a 2- or 3-year period. The rate of decline was similar with all the cultivation systems studied: ploughing, tine cultivation and direct drilling. Seeds buried initially by ploughing, and then not disturbed by cultivation, were slightly more persistent. At five arable sites with natural populations of A. myosuroides, seed numbers declined to an average of 3% of the original amount present after 3 years, and to 1% after 4 years. Initial populations of over 50 000 seeds m^?2 were recorded. Plant populations were not always proportional to the total seed content of the soil, especially on ploughed land. Seed decline in two grass fields was similar to that under arable cropping. A. myosuroides plants were recorded in a wheat crop following a 2-year grass ley. Weed plants did not persist in the vegetative state in grass used for conservation and grazing. At all sites, appreciable quantities of seeds were still present in the soil after 2–4 years. Although a relatively small proportion of seeds survived, the actual number of seeds surviving was substantial. For this reason, it was concluded that any eradication policy is unlikely to be effective in a cropping system dominated by winter cereals.     

The effect of weather factors on the performance of herbicides to control Alopecurus myosuroides in winter wheat

Summary The effect of weather factors before and after spraying on the activity of the herbicides isoproturon and clodinafop-propargyl was assessed in field experiments from 1997 to 2000. The herbicides were sprayed at four rates on eight to 15 occasions between October and April and efficacy was assessed as ED₅₀ for the surviving panicles of Alopecurus myosuroides Huds. The ED₅₀ values (N = normal dose) varied between 0.18 N and 1.16 N for isoproturon and 0.11 N and 1.51 N for clodinafop-propargyl. The effect of weather factors was investigated using multiple regression techniques for 1 to 14 days before and after spraying. These regressions were significant ( P  < 0.001) for each of the individual years. Between 86% and 97% of the total variation in response to both herbicides was accounted for, but the factors were not consistent from year to year. However, when the 3 years were combined for each herbicide the regression was also significant ( P  < 0.001) for isoproturon (78% variation accounted for) and for clodinafop-propargyl (72% variation accounted for). The current blanket advice, that the best control results from applications to small plants, was not always correct.     

Localized origins of herbicide resistance in Alopecurus myosuroides

The process of evolution of resistance to acetyl-coenzyme A carboxylase (ACCase)-inhibiting herbicides was investigated in four distinct patches of Alopecurus myosuroides Huds. (black-grass) that occur within adjacent fields on a cereal farm in Nottinghamshire, UK. In one field, there was a `main' patch containing 96% resistant plants and two `satellite' patches containing ≈2.9% and 4.4% resistant plants, and in an adjacent field another patch contained 25% resistant plants. Genome fingerprinting by simple sequence repeat (SSR)-anchored polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was used to analyse variation at 30 genetic loci in at least 20 resistant and 20 sensitive individual plants from each patch, from additional resistant populations from Essex and Lincolnshire, and from a sensitive reference population. Banding patterns were found to be highly repeatable. Each patch contained a high level of genetic diversity, regardless of its resistance status, and there was evidence for genetic differences between the patches (Gst = 0.14, Nei's distances up to 0.26). There was no evidence that resistance had spread from the `main' patch to the others, as resistant and sensitive plants in the same patch were more closely related on average than were resistant plants from neighbouring patches. The most likely explanations of this distribution, and their implications, are discussed.     

Effect of vernalization on the development and growth of Alopecurus myosuroides

Alopecurus myosuroides is an annual winter grass weed present in many winter and spring crops. The vernalization responses of three populations of A. myosuroides were assessed using natural exposure during winter in two field experiments and using cold exposure of imbibed seeds in a refrigerator in two greenhouse experiments. It was observed that a period of chilling during the pregermination phase had a marked effect on subsequent phenology. In the greenhouse, the major effect of vernalization was the reduction in the vegetative period because of an early reproductive induction of the apex. Plant morphology was affected by vernalization via a decrease in biomass resulting from a reduced tiller number. In all experiments, the time to panicle emergence and the number of leaves on the main stem were reduced by the chilling treatment in field and greenhouse experiments. Alopecurus myosuroides appears to be a species with a partial (quantitative) requirement for cold vernalization, but polymorphism for vernalization requirement was observed within and between populations. Depending on the sowing date, 850–1200 day–degrees C were required for flowering. The possible existence of different annual life forms within A. myosuroides is discussed.     

The production and shedding of Alopecurus myosuroides Huds. seeds in winter cereals crops

Seed shedding from heads of Alopecurus myosuroides occurred from late June to late August at most locations. Most seeds were shed before winter wheat (Triticum-aestivum L.) was harvested hut at two winter barley (Hordeum sativum L.) sites, only 50% of seed was shed prior to harvest. The viability of seeds shed at the start and end of the shedding period tended to be lower than that at peak shedding time in late July and early August. There were large differences between sites in the viability of the total amount of seed shed. The results of viability tests based on the presence of full caryopses and germination in pots of sterile soil were similar. Assessments of head numbers and head length were significantly correlated with total seed production. Head length, but not head number assessments, were also significantly correlated with viable seed production.     

Glutathione transferases in herbicide-resistant and herbicide-susceptible black-grass (Alopecurus myosuroides)

Glutathione transferase (GST) activities toward the selective herbicide fenoxaprop-ethyl, together with thiol contents, have been compared in seedlings of wheat (Triticum aestivum) and two populations of black-grass (Alopecurus myosuroides) which are resistant to a range of herbicides (Peldon and Lincs E1), and a black-grass population which is susceptible to herbicides (Rothamsted). GST activities toward the non-cereal herbicides metolachlor and fluorodifen were also determined. On the basis of enzyme specific activity, GST activities toward fenoxaprop-ethyl in the leaves were in the order wheat>Peldon=Lincs E1>Rothamsted, while with fluorodifen and metolachlor the order was Peldon=Lincs E1>Rothamsted>wheat. Using an antibody raised to the major GST from wheat, which is composed of 25-kDa subunits, it was shown that the enhanced GST activities in both Peldon and Lincs E1 correlated with an increased expression of a 25-kDa polypeptide and the appearance of novel 27-kDa and 28-kDa polypeptides. Leaves of both wheat and black-grass contained glutathione and hydroxymethylglutathione, with the concentrations of glutathione being in the order Peldon>Lincs E1=Rothamsted=wheat. However, in glasshouse dose-response assays, the Lincs E1 population showed much greater resistance to fenoxaprop-ethyl than Peldon. We conclude that high GST activities and the availability of glutathione may contribute partially to the relative tolerance of black-grass to herbicides detoxified by glutathione conjugation. Although herbicide-resistant populations show enhanced GST expression, in the case of fenoxaprop-ethyl the associated increased detoxifying activities alone cannot explain the differences between populations in the degree of resistance seen at the whole plant level. ©1997 SCI     

Studies on the chemical control of blackgrass (Alopecurus myosuroides Huds.) in winter wheat in the West Midlands

In trials carried out in 1978–80, blackgrass populations in winter wheat growing on heavy soil were substantially reduced by all chemical treatments tested, the least effective being methabenzthiazuron. Wild oat populations were also reduced by all treatments except chlofop-isobutyl and methabenzthiazuron. On average of the 3 years only metoxuron treatment gave wheat yields significantly higher than the unsprayed crop.     

Defining the habitat niche of Alopecurus myosuroides at the field scale

The distribution of Alopecurus myosuroides (black‐grass) in fields is patchy. The locations of these patches can be influenced by the environment. This presents an opportunity for precision management through patch spraying. We surveyed five fields on various types of soil using a nested sampling design and recorded both A. myosuroides seedlings in autumn and seed heads in summer. We also measured soil properties at those sampling locations. We found that the patches of seed heads within a field were smaller than the seedling patches, suggesting that techniques for patch spraying based on maps of heads in the previous season could be inherently risky. We also found that the location of A. myosuroides patches within fields can be predicted through their relationship with environmental properties and that these relations are consistent across fields on different soil types. This improved understanding of the relations between soil properties and A. myosuroides seedlings could allow farmers to use pre‐existing or suitably supplemented soil maps already in use for the precision application of fertilisers as a starting point in the creation of herbicide application maps.     

Interpopulation variability and adaptive potential for reduced glyphosate sensitivity in Alopecurus myosuroides

Glyphosate use in the United Kingdom has more than doubled in the last 20 years. Much of this increase is driven by efforts to control herbicide resistant weeds, particularly Alopecurus myosuroides, prior to crop drilling. There is precedent for evolution of glyphosate resistance in similar situations, raising concerns over the sustainability of glyphosate use in the UK. We used dose–response experiments to examine variation in glyphosate sensitivity amongst 40 field‐collected A. myosuroides populations. No populations were resistant to glyphosate, but ED₉₀ values ranged between 354 and 610 g a.i. ha^?1. Five populations had ED₉₀ values significantly higher than the unexposed control population collected from a site at Rothamsted Research with no previous glyphosate exposure. Recurrent selection experiments were performed to determine whether variation in glyphosate sensitivity had a heritable basis. Following two rounds of selection, five of six field populations evolved significantly reduced sensitivity to glyphosate, with R/S ratios, based on estimated ED₅₀ values, ranging from 1.2 to 1.5. These results confirm that there is a heritable basis to variation in glyphosate sensitivity. The response to selection was modest. Evolved populations were not highly resistant to glyphosate, although some twice‐selected individuals survived recommended field rates. These results do not represent definitive proof of the potential of A. myosuroides to evolve glyphosate resistance, although they do indicate caution is needed when considering the sustainability of increased glyphosate use to control this herbicide resistance‐prone species.     

Use of adjuvants to improve control of black-grass (Alopecurus myosuroides Huds.) by diclofop-methyl

In pot and field experiments the addition of Ethylan D256 surfactant to spray solutions improved control of black-grass (Alopecurus myosuroides Huds.) by diclofop-methyl. Various other surfactants and oil adjuvants enhanced phytotoxicity but, generally, to a lesser extent. Ethylan D256 had most effect with applications made at early growth stages. Control of older plants was generally poor, whether or not the surfactant was added. Addition of Ethylan D256 had little effect on selectivity between A. myosuroides and cereals from lower than recommended doses of diclofop-methyl, but there was a suggestion of yield reduction from higher doses. Tank mixing with esters of ioxynil and bromoxynil sometimes improved control by diclofop-methyl but in other circumstances either had no effect or reduced phytotoxicity. Applications of diclofop-methyl in 60 or 120 1 ha^?1 spray volume were as effective as applications in 240 1 ha^?1.     

Long-term stability of distribution of Alopecurus myosuroides Huds. within cereal fields

The incidence of Alopecurus myosuroides seedheads was monitored annually for 10 years in the cereal fields of a 173-ha arable and dairy farm. A. myosuroides persisted at low population densities, despite the use of herbicides and grass breaks in the rotation. The distribution of the weed was irregular, with none occurring on at least 60% of the positions surveyed in the cereal fields. Spatial distributions were compared between years, and some significant correlations were found from year to year in continuous cereals, and in cereal crops separated by a 3-year grass ley.     

Variation in seed dormancy and light sensitivity in Alopecurus myosuroides and Apera spica-venti

Variation in seed dormancy and light sensitivity was studied in Alopecurus myosuroides and Apera spica-venti . Seeds were collected from different populations, at different dates and from plants emerging in autumn or spring, and used in four experiments. In the first experiment, initial dormancy was investigated in light and darkness. In Expt 2, buried seeds were exhumed on 16 occasions, from September 1997 to March 2000, and germinated in light, in darkness and after a 5-s light exposure. In Expt 3, emergence was recorded for seeds sown in pots outdoors. In Expt 4, stratified seeds of A. myosuroides only were exposed to photon irradiance ranging from 0.1 to 25 600 μmol m⁻². Variation was high among seed collections, but both species showed winter annual dormancy patterns. Apera spica-venti germinated to high percentages in autumn but negligibly in spring. Alopecurus myosuroides germinated less in spring when tested in darkness and after a short light exposure and emerged poorly in spring, which reflected photo-desensitisation during cold stratification. We conclude that the peak of emergence in A. myosuroides , and to some extent in A. spica-venti , is largely regulated by exposure to light interacting with low-level dormancy. This offers valuable information regarding optimal timing of weed control measures.     

The effect of controlling Alopecurus myosuroides Huds. and Avena fatua L. individually and together, in mixed infestations on the yield of wheat

Mixed infestations of Alopecurus myosuroides and Arena fatua growing in wheat were controlled individually or together in three experiments. Difenzoquat and ciofop-isohutyl were applied at the early tillering or early stem extension stages of the crops. Early control of both species resulted in significantly higher yields than later control, even though weed emergence was incomplete at the early applications. Herbicides, re-applied at the second date, improved the control of wild-oats hut not of black-grass; yields were not enhanced by this second application Halving the dose of herbicide gave little reduction in weed control or crop yield at the early date, but there was a greater response to dose with the later application. Yields were lower where only one weed was controlled. This work shows the need for broad spectrum control early in the life of the crop to safeguard yield where black-grass, and wild oats occur together in large numbers.     

Influence of tillage, straw disposal system and seed return on the population dynamics of Alopecurus myosuroides Huds. in winter wheat

Alopecurus myosuroides Huds. was studied over a 2-year period in winter wheat established after tine cultivations or direct drilling. Straw was removed by baling or spread and burnt. Seed production was either allowed or prevented by cutting and removing all vegetation at the end of the first year. Cultivation differences had no consistent effect on plant or seed populations. Straw burning destroyed about 50% of seeds and encouraged the germination of surviving seeds. Weed populations in the crop were lower on burnt than on baled areas. Where seed shedding was allowed, populations of seeds in soil and plants increased by up to nine-fold per year. Straw burning resulted in smaller population increases. Seed decline in the soil averaged about 80% per year, so that less than 6% of the weed seeds sown were still viable after 2 years’burial in the soil. Most of the seed decline occurred between July and October and was slightly greater on burnt than on baled areas. Only part of this seed loss was accounted for by germination and emergence of seedlings during summer and autumn. Plants emerging in the crop represented less than 26% of viable seeds present in the soil at time of drilling the crop. Few seedlings emerged in spring. The viability of shed seeds varied with year and with weed density. High infestations were associated with lower seed viability and also fewer heads per plant.     

Characterisation and molecular basis of ALS inhibitor resistance in the grass weed Alopecurus myosuroides

Several UK populations of the grass weed Alopecurus myosuroides were identified where high proportions of individuals showed resistance to the acetolactate synthase (ALS)‐inhibiting herbicides, mesosulfuron‐methyl + iodosulfuron‐methyl sodium mixture and sulfometuron‐methyl. Screening with sulfometuron, followed by DNA sequencing of the ALS gene from resistant and susceptible individuals, led to the identification of eight populations where a single point mutation segregated with resistance to sulfometuron. All highly resistant individuals from seven of eight populations showed a single‐nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) in the first position of the Pro197 codon of an A. myosuroides ALS gene, conferring a predicted proline to threonine target‐site change. One population showed resistant individuals with single‐nucleotide polymorphism in the second position of the Trp574 codon, conferring a predicted tryptophan to leucine substitution. No other mutations segregating with resistance were found. Enzyme assays confirmed that resistance was due to an altered form of ALS enzyme, which was less susceptible to inhibition by sulfonylureas, making this one of the first fully characterised cases of ALS target‐site resistance in a European grass weed. Increased information regarding the nature and distribution of ALS target‐site mutation may help support sustainable management strategies, allowing continued use of mesosulfuron + iodosulfuron against this weed in the UK.     

An approach to investigate the costs of herbicide‐resistant Alopecurus myosuroides

Herbicide resistance in Alopecurus myosuroides causes severe problems in Western European cropping systems. Costs of herbicide resistance were investigated in this study by analysing variable production costs and sales revenues. Three farms were selected for this study, with winter wheat as the dominating crop in all farms. Resistance in A. myosuroides populations was verified at all locations. Four farming approaches were simulated over a period of 20 years: (i) continuing the actual cropping system without increase of resistance, (ii) continuing the actual cropping system with increase of resistance, (iii) changing cropping practice to overcome resistance and (iv) changing cropping practice to prevent resistance. Contribution margins representing the proportion of sales revenue that is not consumed by variable costs were calculated for all approaches. Comparative static simulations showed that average contribution margins in a cropping system with more than 60% winter cereals and reduced tillage practice dropped from 807 € ha^?1 a^?1 without herbicide resistance to 307 € ha^?1 a^?1 with herbicide resistance. Alopecurus myosuroides population densities increased to more than 1000 plants m^?2. Diverse crop rotations, including spring crops, clover–grass leys and intensive tillage, suppressed A. myosuroides populations, and average contribution margin was 630 € ha^?1 a^?1. Preventive methods with rotations of winter cereals and spring crops with less clover–grass leys resulted in an average contribution margin of 691 € ha^?1 a^?1. In conclusion, rotations of winter cereals and spring crops combined with inversion tillage and herbicides provide stable yields and can prevent weed population increase.