Real-time observation and prediction of physical processes in a typhoon-affected lake

A nowcasting system integrating observations and a numerical model was developed to better understand the spatial distributions and temporal variations in the dynamics of a small, subtropical lake occasionally influenced by severe rainstorms. The nowcasting system was used to monitor real-time meteorological conditions and thermal structures, to provide spatial information on the thermal and flow dynamics from model predictions, and to compare the predictions with the observations. The system was also able to determine whether the instruments collecting field data were performing correctly using telemetry operations. The nowcasting system was initially operated in the spring of 2009 in Yuan-Yang Lake, Taiwan. Rainstorm-induced mixing occurred due to Typhoon Morakot during August 7–9, 2009. The mixing was observed by the instruments, and the spatial distributions and temporal variations during the mixing were successfully predicted by the three-dimensional hydrodynamic lake model. A quantitative comparison of the energy balances among the heat, wind, and water inflow inputs to the lake implied that the typhoon-induced mixing was primarily caused by strong winds. The model predictions showed that the lake experienced mixing and flooding (large amounts of inflow/outflow discharges), resulting in homogenous temperatures and flows that moved to the outlet of the lake.     

In vitro Bioaccessibility of Proteins,Phenolics, Flavonoids and Antioxidant Activity of Amaranthus viridis

Plant Foods for Human Nutrition - The aim of this study was to investigate the chemical composition, mineral content and report the effect of gastrointestinal digestion on the proteins, phenolics,...     

Food plants — Fresh,prepared, processed — In relation to standards of living and potential diseases of civilization

The results are summed up as follows:Provided that medical statistics (sometimes more or less unreliable), medical observations and thorough experimental findings in human pathology before, during, and after World War II in Germany and in Switzerland, would be as trustworthy as recent medical findings in East Africa, both, representatives in nutritional science and in quality research on food plants, ought to react with claims. These are:Improving nutritional quality of food plants. More food from plants used in diets because of decisively favourable effect in fighting diseases of Western civilization.Evidence is furnished by Painter (1968) and Burkitt (1972) as follows: Lack of diseases of Western civilization in the Negro population of East Africa — chiefly coronary heart disease (killing in Western societies one in four men (Burkitt)), and diseases of the digestive tract — is due to plant diets high in contents of undigestible crude fibre. These diets of Africans in rural communities have a distinct influence in shortening the transit time of stool through the alimentary canal. This is in consequence the causation of lack of troubles in the intestinal tract such as diverticulitis, fistula or cancer of the colon, appendicitis, and in further consequence of the non-infective diseases of the colon, lack of both coronary heart disease and cholesterol gall stones (Burkitt).These striking facts, however, alarm research workers in quality of food plants. It is quite possible to control the contents of crude fibre in certain food plants (without lowering the dible value) as well by choice of cultivars, by breeding, and by methods of cultivation as by recommendations in change of distinct habits in consumption of food plants.This in turn may to some extent revolutionize conventional methods of fertilization and particularly the use of pesticides in Agriculture and in Horticulture. The nature of fertilizing significantly alters the contents of water and consequently those of crude fibre, too. It is well known that pesticide residues are stored preferentially in the outer portions of plant tissues rich in fibre, e.g. in cereals, in root crops and in fruit.Besides contents of crude fibres — not occurring in animal products — other plant constituents such as certain vitamins, essential oils regulating metabolic processes in man and showing antimicrobial effects, further high contents in certain minerals decisively help fight diseases of Western civilization.The dietetic problem of sufficient supply of potassium counteracting sodium given as table salt in excess and playing a decisive role in fighting hypertension in man (Meneely) could be settled, when methods of fertilization, procedures in cooking and in industrial processing of plant products may correspond to the justified demands of public health. These methods should be reformed as proposed in the report.Examples are given by the aid of tables and diagrams how to help fight the causation of the diseases of civilization by means of quality research on food plants.

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Zusammenfassung Die Ergebnisse können wie folgt zusammengefaßt werden:Vorausgesetzt, daß sowohl die medizinische Statistik (manchmal mehr oder weniger unzulänglich), als auch medizinische Beobachtungen und experimentelle Untersuchungen auf dem Gebiet der menschlichen Pathologie vor, während und nach dem 2. Weltkrieg in Deutschland und in der Schweiz genauso zuverläßig sind, wie kürzlich bekanntgegebene medizinische Befunde aus Ostafrika, dann müßten darauf Ernährungswissenschaftler und Qualitätsforscher an Nahrungspflanzen mit Forderungen reagieren: Diese sind: Experimentell gesteuerte Verbesserung der Nahrungsqualität der Pflanzen sowie verstärkter Verzehr von Nahrungspflanzen und deren Produkte, weil ihnen eine entscheidend günstige Wirkung bei Verhütung von Zivilisationskrankheiten zukommt.Painter (1968) und Burkitt (1972) wiesen nach: Zivilisationskrankheiten treten bei Negern in Ostafrika praktisch nicht auf, wie Erkrankungen der Herzkranzgefäße (in westlichen Ländern fallen 25% der Menschen dieser Erkrankung zum Opfer (Burkitt)) sowie Erkrankungen des Verdauungstraktes. Dies wird bei der afrikanischen Landbevölkerung durch überwiegenden Verzehr von Pflanzenkost mit hohem Gehalt an unverdaulicher Rohfaser erklärt und experimentell belegt durch die sehr kurze Verweildauer des Stuhls im Verdauungstrakt. Dies ist — so folgern Painter und Burkitt — der Grund für das Fehlen von Erkrankungen des Darmtraktes bei der ostafrikanischen Landbevölkerung, z.B. von Diverticulitis, Fisteln und von Dickdarmkrebs sowie von Blinddarmentzündung — und als Folge davon (Burkitt) — für das Fehlen von Erkrankungen der Herzkranzgefäße und der Galle (cholesterinbürtige Gallensteine (Burkitt)). Diesen überraschenden Tatsachen ist durch bestimmte Verzehrsempfehlungen und durch experimentelle Untersuchungen der Qualitätsforscher unschwer beizukommen.Es ist sehr gut möglich, den Rohfasergehalt gewisser Nahrungspflanzen zu steuern (ohne ihren Verzehrwert zu mindern) und zwar sowohl durch Sortenwahl, durch Züchtungs- und Kulturmaßnahmen als auch durch Empfehlung der Änderung bestimmter Verzehrsgewohnheiten bei Nahrungspflanzen.Dadurch werden bis zu einem gewissen Grad die bisherigen Düngungs- und Pflanzenschutz-Maßnahmen in Landwirtschaft und Gartenbau betroffen. Die Art der Düngung beeinflußt signifikant den Wassergehalt und damit den Gehalt an Rohfasern; Pestizid-Rückstände werden vor allem in den äußeren rohfaserreichen Schichten des Pflanzengewebes gespeichert, z.B. im Getreide, in Wurzelgemüse und in Obst.In tierischen Nahrungsmitteln nicht vorkommende spezifische pflanzliche Inhaltsstoffe, z.B. bestimmte Vitamine, stoffwechselregelnde und antimikrobiell wirksame ätherische Öle sowie hohe Gehalte an bestimmten Mineralstoffen, spielen eine mitentscheidende Rolle bei Verhütung von Zivilisationskrankheiten.Das Problem einer ausreichenden Bereitstellung von Kalium in unserer Ernährung zur Kompensierung meist überhöhter Zufuhr an Natrium mit dem Speisesalz spielt eine entscheidende Rolle bei der Bekämpfung des Bluthochdrucks beim Menschen (Meneely). Es könnte gelöst werden, wenn Düngungsmaßnahmen, Zubereitung in der Küche und industrielle Verarbeitung bei der Konservierung pflanzlicher Erzeugnisse den berechtigten Forderungen der Volksgesundheit entsprechen und wie vorgeschlagen oder ähnlich reformiert würden.An Hand von Tabellen und Darstellungen werden praktikable Beispiele angeführt, wie die Qualitätsforschung an Nahrungspflanzen entscheidend dazu beitragen kann, die Ursachen der Zivilisationskrankheiten mitbekämpfen zu helfen.

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Paper read on the VIIth CIQ and VIIIth DGQ-Congress Food Plants and their Use for Human Diets in Relation to Environmental Factors with Special Reference to the Nutritional Value, held in West-Berlin (Congress Hall), 4th to 7th October 1972.     

Immunomodulatory Effects of Domoic Acid Differ Between In vivo and In vitro Exposure in Mice

The immunotoxic potential of domoic acid (DA), a well-characterized neurotoxin, has not been fully investigated. Phagocytosis and lymphocyte proliferation were evaluated following in vitro and in vivo exposure to assay direct vs indirect effects. Mice were injected intraperitoneally with a single dose of DA (2.5 μg/g b.w.) and sampled after 12, 24, or 48 hr. In a separate experiment, leukocytes and splenocytes were exposed in vitro to 0, 1, 10, or 100 μM DA. In vivo exposure resulted in a significant increase in monocyte phagocytosis (12-hr), a significant decrease in neutrophil phagocytosis (24-hr), a significant decrease in monocyte phagocytosis (48-hr), and a significant reduction in T-cell mitogen-induced lymphocyte proliferation (24-hr). In vitro exposure significantly reduced neutrophil and monocyte phagocytosis at 1 μM. B- and T-cell mitogen-induced lymphocyte proliferation were both significantly increased at 1 and 10 μM, and significantly decreased at 100 μM. Differences between in vitro and in vivo results suggest that DA may exert its immunotoxic effects both directly and indirectly. Modulation of cytosolic calcium suggests that DA exerts its effects through ionotropic glutamate subtype surface receptors at least on monocytes. This study is the first to identify DA as an immunotoxic chemical in a mammalian species.     

单倍体籼稻无性系微芽的离体调控

 以籼稻单倍体无性系微芽为材料,研究了激素及秋水仙碱等处理对籼稻单倍体微芽的诱导、分化、扩增及加倍的影响。2 mg/L的2,4-D可提高籼稻单倍体微芽的培养力。NAA对籼稻单倍体微芽的扩增有明显影响,0.5 mg/L的NAA可成倍扩增微芽,培养35 d后,其芽数比原始芽数增加了46.21倍,比不加NAA的对照增加了2.8倍,且单芽重仅0.079 mg。籼稻单倍体微芽扩增的适宜培养基为：N6附加MET 2.5 mg/L、NAA 0.5 mg/L、6-BA 2 mg/L。500 mg/L秋水仙碱溶液处理籼稻单倍体微芽48 h,其二倍体得率较高,绿苗率及二倍体率分别为42.9%和60.0%;秋水仙碱处理愈伤组织的效果不佳,虽然提高秋水仙碱处理浓度可提高二倍体率,最高可达100%,但由于绿苗分化率下降,使总的二倍体得苗率比不处理的对照低。     

In vivo and in vitro anti-inflammatory activity of neorogioltriol, a new diterpene extracted from the red algae Laurencia glandulifera

Neorogioltriol is a tricyclic brominated diterpenoid isolated from the organic extract of the red algae Laurencia glandulifera. In the present study, the anti-inflammatory effects of neorogioltriol were evaluated both in vivo using carrageenan-induced paw edema and in vitro on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-treated Raw264.7 macrophages. The in vivo study demonstrated that the administration of 1 mg/kg of neorogioltriol resulted in the significant reduction of carregeenan-induced rat edema. In vitro, our results show that neorogioltriol treatment decreased the luciferase activity in LPS-stimulated Raw264.7 cells, stably transfected with the NF-κB-dependent luciferase reporter. This effect on NF-κB activation is not mediated through MAPK pathways. The inhibition of NF-κB activity correlates with decreased levels of LPS-induced tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNFα) present in neorogioltriol treated supernatant cell culture. Further analyses indicated that this product also significantly inhibited the release of nitric oxide and the expression of cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) in LPS-stimulated Raw264.7 cells. These latter effects could only be observed for neorogioltriol concentrations below 62.5 μM. To our knowledge, this is the first report describing a molecule derived from Laurencia glandulifera with anti-inflammatory activity both in vivo and in vitro. The effect demonstrated in vitro may be explained by the inhibition of the LPS-induced NF-κB activation and TNFα production. NO release and COX-2 expression may reinforce this effect.     

In vitro tuberisation of potato: the interaction of ancymidol and photoperiod

Summary Ancymidol-induced in vitro tuberisation under different photoperiodic regimes (dark, SD=8 h, LD=16 h) and sucrose concentrations (2, 4, 6 and 8%) in cv. Jaerla (early) and cv. Baraka (late) was studied. Tuberisation was scored after 4 (dark) or 8 (light) weeks. Ancymidol significantly increased tuberisation under LD-SD for any sucrose concentration in both cultivars. Ancymidol also significantly increased tuberisation under LD-dark for 6% sucrose in both cultivars. Tuberisation in cv. Jaerla was significantly higher than in cv. Baraka for any photoperiodic treatment in the presence or absence of ancymidol with 4, 6 or 8% sucrose. The photoperiod SD-SD resulted in the higher level of tuberisation for any combination of sucrose, cultivar and ancymidol. The possible role of ancymidol is discussed.     

In vitro Assessment of the Bioaccessibility of Carotenoids from Sun-Dried Chilli Peppers

Chilli peppers have been recognized as an excellent source of antioxidants as they are rich in bioactive phytochemicals such as carotenoids which are known to exert various beneficial effects in vivo. Absorption is an important factor in the determination of the potential biological effects of carotenoids. The bioaccessibility of a food constituent such as a carotenoid represents its potential to be absorbed in humans. There is very limited information in the literature regarding the content and bioaccessibility of carotenoids from dried peppers. Therefore, the objectives of the present study were: first, to determine the carotenoid content of 20 varieties of red, orange or yellow coloured sun-dried chilli peppers belonging to either of four Capsicum species (annuum, baccatum, chinense and chacoense); and second, to quantify the carotenoid micellarization (bioaccessibility) following an in vitro digestion procedure. Red peppers had a higher carotenoid content and bioaccessibility than either the orange peppers or yellow pepper. Xanthophylls showed greater bioaccessibility than carotenes. Our findings confirm that dried chilli peppers are a good source of carotenoids.     

Evaluation of the In vitro Anti-hyperglycemic Effect of Cinnamomum cassia Derived Phenolic Phytochemicals,via Carbohydrate Hydrolyzing Enzyme Inhibition

Cinnamomum cassia (cinnamon) proanthocyanidins (PACs) are believed to have anti-hyperglycemic potential via stimulation of insulin sensitivity. The present study investigates the carbohydrate hydrolyzing enzyme inhibition of cinnamon PACs. Five grams of cinnamon bark powder were extracted in 100 mL acetone solution (CAE) (acetone: water: hydrochloric acid, 70:29.9:0.01) for 2 h at room temperature and in 100 mL deionized water for 30 min at 90 °C (CWE). PACs were purified from CAE using LH-20 (CAE-PAC) to be further evaluated. PAC contents were evaluated by 4-Dimethylaminocinnamaldehyde (DMAC) assay and yielded 795, 177 and 123 mg/g, for CAE-PAC, CAE and CWE respectively. The total phenolic contents of CAE and CWE were determined to be 152 and 134 mg/g respectively. All extracts were adjusted to the same PAC content (180, 90, 45 and 20 μg) and the inhibitory activity against rat α-glucosidase was determined. The CAE-PAC fraction had very low rat α-glucosidase inhibitory activity, CAE had the highest (IC₅₀ 0.474 mg/mL total phenolic (TP) basis) followed by CWE (IC₅₀ 0.697 mg/mL TP basis). The specific maltase and sucrase inhibitory activities were determined and CAE (IC₅₀ 0.38 and 0.10 mg/mL TP basis) had higher inhibition than CWE (IC₅₀ 0.74 and 0.37 mg/mL TP basis). Results suggest that the observed bioactivity is not PAC dependent and that CAE has a higher anti-hyperglycemic potential than CWE via inhibition of carbohydrate hydrolyzing enzymes.     

In vitro production of potato microtubers in liquid medium using temporary immersion

Summary CIRAD developed a new apparatus for plant tissue culture, using temporary immersion in a liquid medium. This apparatus was adapted to the microtuber production in potato. The procedure is as follows: single node cultivation on MS medium containing 30 g/l sucrose in the light for 2 weeks, induction of microtuberisation with 80 g/l sucrose over a 2 week period in the light, followed by a further 6 weeks in the dark. All experiments were performed at 20 °C. The basic vessel had a capacity of approximately 11;30 nodes were cultivated per vessel. Depending on the cultivars tested (Bintje, Ostara and Désirée) 47 to 115 microtubers were harvested per vessel. Between 30 and 60% of the microtubers weighted over 0.5 g and between 10 and 40% over 0.8 g. Sprouting is still under investigation. Preliminary results indicate that the dormancy period was relatively short and several stems were obtained per microtuber. These results seem to be better than those usually reported. Only one simple protocol has been tested and further improvements are probably easy to obtain.     

Investigation of the In Vivo,In Vitro,and In Silico Wound Healing Potential of Pinctada martensii Purified Peptides

Previous studies found that both oral and topical administration of enzymatic digestion products < 3 K Da ultrafiltration fractions of Pinctada martensii mantle (PMPs) had pro-healing effects. Thus, we further purified them by Sephadex-G25 and screened them by cellular assays to obtain Pinctada martensii purified peptides (PMPPs). In this study, we explored the mechanism of PMPPs on wound healing by in vivo, in vitro, and in silico experiments. LC-MS/MS results showed that PMPPs consisted of 33 peptides with molecular weights ranging from 758.43 to 2014.04 Da, and the characteristic peptide was Leu-Asp. The results of cellular assays showed that PMPPs promoted the proliferation of human skin fibroblasts (HSF) (135%) and human immortalized keratinocyte (HaCaT) cells (125%) very significantly at 12.5 μg/mL. The in vivo results showed that PMPPs could achieve scarless healing by inhibiting the inflammatory response, accelerating the epithelialization process, and regulating collagen I/III ratio. The optimal peptide sequence FAFQAEIAQLMS of PMPPs was screened for key protein receptors in wound healing (EGFR1, FGFR1, and MMP-1) with the help of molecular docking technique, which also showed to be the key pro-healing active peptide sequence. Therefore, it may provide a therapeutic strategy with great potential for wound healing.     

In vitro shoot regeneration ofSolanum tuberosum cultivars: interactions of medium composition and leaf, leaflet, and explant position

Summary Shoot regeneration was investigated on explants from different leaves and leaflets of three potato cultivars Posmo, Folva and Oleva. Explants were excised from glasshouse grown plants and grown for 6 days on callus induction medium with indole-3-acetic acid or 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid. Explants were then transferred to auxin free shoot regeneration medium with gibberellic acid and 6-benzyladenine or zeatin. By using the optimum combinations and concentrations of plant growth regulators and by excision of explants from particular regions of proximal leaflets from newly unfolded leaves, shoot regeneration frequencies of 97.0% were obtained for cv. Posmo and 32.1% for cv. Folva. Shoot regeneration frequency of cv. Oleva was very low and could not be improved by the different treatments.     

Evaluation of the Total Antioxidant Capacity,Polyphenol Contents and Starch Hydrolase Inhibitory Activity of Ten Edible Plants in an In vitro Model of Digestion

The total phenolics contents, total antioxidant capacity (TAC) and starch hydrolase inhibitory activity of the aqueous extracts of 10 edible plants and the stability of these parameters after the gastric and duodenal digestion in an in vitro model was investigated. The TAC was evaluated using the oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC) assay, ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) and 2, 2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH?) and 2, 2-azinobis-(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS?+) radical scavenging assays. Characterization and quantification of five polyphenol compounds which were previously identified to be present in all the selected plants were carried out. None of the extracts showed a decrease in the total phenolics content or the ORAC and FRAP values following digestion. None of the quantified phenolic compounds had decreased during any of the digestion phases – an observation which was deemed as beneficial in terms of therapeutic properties. Overall, the parameters analyzed were relatively stable throughout the digestive process in all the extracts.

     

In vitro digestion of bundle sheath cells in rumen fluid and its relation to the suberized lamella and C4 photosynthetic type in Panicum species

Differences in ease of digestion of bundle sheath cell walls of leaf blades of Panicum spp. are shown to be associated with differences in bundle sheath cell wall structure, including the presence or absence of a suberized lamella. These structural differences are correlated with photo-synthetic type (viz. C₃, intermediate C₃/C₄, and the C₄ types, PCK, NADP-ME and NAD-ME), as are mesophyll: bundle sheath area ratios.     

In vitro amino acid digestibility of food proteins as measured by the digestion cell technique

The digestibility of proteins and individual amino acids of nineteen selected foods was determined by anin vitro assay. Samples were hydrolysed with pepsin for 30 minutes in an acidic medium; the pH was then raised to 7.5 and the mixture poured into the dialysis bag (molecular weight cut-off 1000) of a digestion cell with pancreatin. Digestion products, mixtures of free amino acids and low molecular weight peptides which pass through the dialysis membrane, were collected for 6 hours by sodium phosphate buffer circulation. All proteins from animal sources displayed a digestibility similar to casein, except for breakfast sausage. Vegetable proteins showed intermediate digestibility, except for cereals (lower) or peanut butter (higher). Target amino acids of enzymes were generally more readily hydrolysed. However, compared to other animal proteins, glycine in milk products, valine, isoleucine, methionine and lysine in breakfast sausage and hot dog, and histidine in tuna were more easily released. Overheating of non-fat dried milk not only reduced the lysine digestibility, but also that of methionine, phenylalanine, histidine and cystine. Among vegetable proteins, wheat products were characterized by a relatively greater release of threonine, isoleucine and histidine, and peas by a lower digestibility of methionine and lysine. Proline of soy isolate and isoleucine of pinto bean were resistant to hydrolysis while arginine of pinto beans and of rice-wheat-gluten was easily released.     

In vitro release of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors, peroxyl-radical scavengers and antibacterial compounds by enzymatic hydrolysis of glycated gluten

The combined effect of gluten glycation and proteolysis on the release of compounds exhibiting in vitro angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitory, antioxidant and antibacterial activities was investigated. Model systems consisting of wheat gluten and glucose were heated at 120 °C for 45 min, 150 °C for 30 min and 220 °C for 30 min to produce various Maillard reaction products mimicking reactions occurring in bread crusts. Progress of the Maillard reaction was estimated through indirect measurement of Amadori compounds as 2-furoylmethyl-amino acids. Glycation was followed by digestion with Pronase E and ultrafiltration. The anti-hypertensive activity was measured as the ability to inhibit the activity of angiotensin I-converting enzyme involved in hypertension regulation. The Oxygen Radical Absorbance assay was used to measure the peroxyl radical scavenging capacity of the products and their effect on microbial growth of Escherichia coli ATCC 25922 and Staphlococcus aureus ATCC 25923 was also studied. Advanced products of the reaction enhanced the antioxidant and antibacterial properties of gluten hydrolysates and decreased the overall ACE inhibitory activity. Ultrafiltration provided a useful method for separating compounds (< 3000 Da) with ACE inhibitory activity and advanced Maillard reaction products (>3000 Da) which scavenged peroxyl radicals and inhibited the microbial growth.     

In vitro microtuberization: an evaluation of culture conditions for the production of virus-free seed potatoes

Summary A tissue culture technique is described in which nodal cuttings ofSolanum tuberosum L. are induced to form usable microtubers in order to produce high health status of the seed potato genotypes cultivated in Switzerland.     

Comparative Study About Some Physical Properties, In vitro Digestibility and Immunoreactivity of Soybean Protein Isolate for Infant Formula

The objective of this study was to determine molecular weight subunit distributions of soy protein isolate (SPI) by SDS-PAGE and gel size exclusion chromatography, and further to investigate the differences of thixotropy, viscosity, in vitro digestibility and immunoreactivity of SPI for infant formula produced in Chinese domestic companies and world famous SPI manufacturers such as Dupont and Fuji. The molecular subunit distributions were analyzed by SDS-PAGE and gel size exclusion chromatography, indicating that Solae and Fuji were hydrolyzed by proteolytic enzymes. The thixotropy of Fuji and Solae significantly reduced around by 95 %, compared with those of Mantianxue and Dupont Zhengzhou. The allergen contents of Fuji and Solae strikingly decreased by 60 and 84 % respectively, in contrast to that of Mantianxue. The in vitro protein digestibility of Solae at the end of pepsin and trypsin digestion markedly increased by 11.7 and 11.3 %, respectively, in comparison to those of Mantianxue. Suitable enzymatic hydrolyzed SPIs showed lower thixotropy, viscosity, immunoreactivity and higher in vitro protein digestibility than those from the other SPIs. The lower thixotropy indicates low difficulty or shear stress in swallowing for infants. The lower immunoreactivity will improve the safety of SPI for cow milk allergic babies.