Forest Villagers in Northeastern Hill Forests of Bangladesh: Examining Their Livelihoods,Livelihood Strategies and Forest Conservation Linkages

Even though many forest villagers have been living on forest department land and serving the department in the northeastern hill forests region of Bangladesh since the early 1950s, their livelihood has not yet been fully explored. This paper examines the livelihoods of forest villagers (Khasia ethnic people) and their contribution to forest conservation, using data from the Sylhet forest division. The forest villagers are well-endowed with all the elements of a sustainable livelihoods framework, though human capital in terms of education is not satisfactory. Strong social capital, stable natural capital and a productive market-oriented agroforestry system facilitate the generation of financial and physical capital that make the livelihoods of Khasia people sustainable. At the same time, their reciprocal contributions in terms of forest protection and plantation development support forest conservation. However, some institutional issues such as insecure land tenure with regular agreement renewal problems need to be resolved for the sake of their livelihoods and forest conservation. Lessons learned from the study can be utilized in formulating future participatory forest management schemes in the country.     

Village Common Forest Management in Komolchori,Chittagong Hill Tracts,Bangladesh: An Example of Community Based Natural Resources Management

Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHTs) in Bangladesh covers about 50% of the country’s natural forest resources, providing sources of food, fuel-wood, medicinal plants, timber and water supply to the ethnic communities living in the area. The ethnic communities in CHTs have been managing a small patch of forest known as a village common forest (VCF) adjacent to their village following a community based forest management approach. Taking a case study of Komolchori VCF, this study examined dependency of community people on VCF resources, their conservation-related attitudes and awareness, indigenous management, and forest phyto-sociological structure. A survey and focus group discussions were conducted among the settlers and non-settlers in Thana Chandra para and Jaduram para villages of the Komolchori VCF. Key informant interviews were conducted with two non-government organizations (NGOs) and the headman in the study area. To assess phyto-sociological structure of vegetation, 25 quadrats (10 m?×?10 m) were laid out randomly. Results revealed that non-settlers were more inclined towards VCF conservation and women played a crucial role as they were directly involved in forest products and water collection. Soil erosion caused by shifting cultivation has made community people more aware of forest degradation. Training program provided by NGOs on different horticultural techniques and a “Saving-Credit program” improved livelihood conditions and reduced pressures on VCF resources. Locally devised traditional rules guide the community people to manage the VCF sustainably. The vegetation survey showed that the density of Komolchori VCF was 1420 trees/ha with a basal area of 27.98 m²/ha. The Shannon–Weiner index, species diversity index and index of dominance in the study area were 2.91, 0.62, 0.09, respectively.     

广州市含土沉香风水林的群落学特征及其保护

在含土沉香的广州市萝岗区风水林（村边次生常绿阔叶林）设样方进行调查,分析其组成和结构特征。在800 m^2样地内有维管植物70种,隶属于39科60属,以热带分布科和属占优势;优势科有茜草科、樟科和大戟科等,群落成层现象明显,可分为乔木层（3个亚层）、灌木层和草本层3个层次,层间植物丰富。乔木层第1亚层木荷重要值最大,黄果厚壳桂次之,该群落命名为木荷＋黄果厚壳桂＋黄杞群落（Schima su-perba＋Cryptocarya concinna＋Engelhardtia roxburghiana Community）。生活型以中、小高位芽为主,叶型以中、小革质单叶为主;种群频度分布规律为A〉B〉C〉E,属于A级的种类占优势;土沉香（Aquilaria sinensis）以小径级为主,只要环境合适,自身具有较强的更新能力;样方内部分植株侧根或树枝遭人为砍伐,树干被砍伤,严重影响植株生长。土沉香是广东省地道药材的＂十大广药＂之一,建议在广州市有野生土沉香生长的植物群落,设立自然保护小区进行保护。     

热带山地次生雨林生态系统的水文学过程及养分动态*

在小集区技术和定位观测综合实验测定的基础上，研究分析了尖峰岭热带山地雨林更新林生态系统３年间的水文学过程、水质的动态变化、营养元素积累。结果表明：水量及营养元素的输入、再分配和输出量主要集中在雨季在５～１０月份，两者月动态变化特征密切相关，年降水输入营养元素的７８％被森林生态系统积累。     

抚育措施对热带天然次生林群落结构与物种多样性的影响

[目的]通过对海南霸王岭林区的热带天然次生林抚育技术试验,了解抚育对次生林群落组成和结构的影响。[方法]通过对30个热带天然次生中龄林(60年)固定样地(50 m×50 m)进行抚育前后的森林调查数据,利用配对t检验、非维度多尺度标定(NMS)和指示种分析等统计方法,比较个体数量、物种多样性、群落物种组成、指示种、优势种和群落径级结构在抚育后的变化特征。[结果]表明:经过抚育后群落上层物种(胸径≥5 cm)和下层(1 cm≤胸径5 cm)个体密度显著减少了24.9%和59.9%,胸高断面积显著减少了13.1%和54.9%。抚育前后上层和下层树木径级分布结构均没发生显著变化,但呈随径级增加抚育比例减小的趋势。与抚育前的群落物种相比,抚育后的次生林上层和下层的物种组成无显著变化,上层树木物种密度减少了15.1%,但物种丰富度(排除密度效应后的物种密度)和香农指数无显著变化。抚育对下层树木的影响更加显著,其中,物种密度、物种丰富度、香农指数显著减少了40.3%、15.1%和11.1%。经过抚育后,上层指示种多度平均减少了85.6%,优势种多度平均减少了6.4%;下层指示种多度平均减少了85.9%,而优势种多度平均减少了35.1%。[结论]通过中幼林综合抚育措施,热带低地雨林次生林中短寿命先锋种数量显著减少,降低了抚育后先锋种对保留目的种的竞争强度,从而为加快热带次生林的生态功能恢复和实施森林经营管理奠定了重要基础。     

福建漳江口红树林湿地自然保护区生态系统现状与评价

在论述福建漳江口红树林湿地自然保护区自然生态系统质量现状的基础上 ,对本保护区自然生态系统质量进行评价 ,加深人们对保护区的认识 ,唤起人们的保护意识     

The Ankasa Forest Conservation Area of Ghana: Ecosystem service values and on-site REDD + opportunity cost

The Ankasa Forest Conservation Area is one of the most important protected areas (PA) in West Africa. This study aimed at estimating the economic values of selected ecosystem services of the PA and the direct on-site REDD + opportunity costs to communities. We found that the PA stocks 32.8 million m³ (627 m³/ha) of standing trees with a stumpage value of about $ 19.1 million (364 $/ha), 64.3 million tCO₂e (1230 tCO₂e/ha) of carbon worth of $379.5 million ($7257/ha), and 6380 tons of nutrients worth of 0.64 million USD. The direct on-site REDD + opportunity cost for conserving the PA until 2042 was about 6.7–24.1 $/tCO₂e (0.22–0.80 $/tCO2e per year) in net present value. From our field observation of the PA, we did not see a buffer zone that separates the PA from the surrounding land uses. Establishing a buffer zone is very important for the sustainability of the PA. Such an effort, however, should take in to account the opportunity costs to the rural communities associated with possible displacement. Thus, the results of the study could be used as important input for designing policies that will reinforce the sustainability of the Ankasa PA and other conservation sites in Ghana.     

Effectiveness of Protected Area Governance in the Conservation of Mt. Marsabit Forest Ecosystem,Kenya

ABSTRACT

Protected area systems (PAs) have the potential to conserve natural resources and provide social and economic benefits to local communities. Establishing and maintaining good governance and associated mechanisms is necessary for adaptive management of PAs. To test this hypothesis, we analyzed the relationships between various stakeholders and the effectiveness of PA governance of Mt. Marsabit forest ecosystem in Kenya. We used social network analysis (SNA) to assess the interactions between actors, and factor analysis to analyze the effectiveness of governance criteria. Governance of Mt. Marsabit forest ecosystem was complex with a multiplicity of stakeholders from diverse interests. Governance was moderately effective (61%) with positive indicators including the regulatory framework, delineation of areas under conservation, and reduction in poaching. The low level of interactions and associations among stakeholders suggest a weakness in the networks that may negatively affect the flow of information and other resources. This weakness was attributed to a lack of institutionalization of the links leading to poor coordination of processes. Local communities were inadequately represented in the governance of this PA despite being important actors. Our study finds that local ownership and strong linkages between actors are important ingredients for effective governance of PAs.     

Community ecology and spatial distribution of trees in a tropical wet evergreen forest in Kaptai national park in Chittagong Hill Tracts,Bangladesh

We investigated the floristic composition, woody species diversity and spatial distribution of trees in a tropical wet evergreen forest in Kaptai national park in Chittagong Hill Tracks, Bangladesh. We recorded 25 families, 37 genera, 40 species and 1771 woody individuals in a 0.09 ha plot. Euphorbiaceae and Moraceae were the most speciesrich families, and Castanopsis, Ficus and Terminalia were the most species-rich genera. Bursera serrata Wall. ex Colebr. was the dominant species in terms of highest importance value(13%). Trema orientalis(L.)Bl was typically a light demanding species as it appeared in the top canopy with only one individual having the seventh highest IV, but had no regeneration. The expected maximum number of species(Smax) was 140,indicating that many species may invade the forest as the Smax is greater than the recorded total number of species. The nature of the disappearance and appearance of species in the present forest reflects instability of floristic composition. The values of Shannon's index H ′ and Pielou's index J ′(evenness) were 3.36 bit and 0.63, respectively. These values show moderately high species diversity as compared to other subtropical forests in the tropics. In addition, a sample area of 200 m2 in this forest would be sufficient for measuring the diversity indices H ′ and J ′,whereas the trend of J ′may indicate the rate of equality of individuals among the different species decreased with increasing area. The distribution pattern for the total stand was completely random. However, the dominant species showed aggregate distribution for small areas, but random distribution for large areas. The spatial association between species showed that the strongest positive interspecific association occurred between Streblus asper Lour. and Castanea indica Roxb.(ω =0.51). As a whole, most species were weakly associated with each other,of which 58% species associations were completely negative. The result of cluster analysis showed that species pairs were spatially independent at all or most small clusters; stands of species from all clusters are mosaics of complete habitat and pioneer habitat. All patches in this forest community have similar habitat and regeneration niches, which could be a phenomenon for a young growth forest. Thus, the existence of habitat and regeneration niches may be an important factor in the maintenance of diversity in this forest.     

宁夏水洞沟段生态景观长廊森林生态系统服务功能价值评估

文章依托宁夏银川城市森林生态系统国家定位观测研究站建设项目以及银川市森林资源二类调查资料,并结合实地补充调查,以树种、林龄组为测算单元进行分布式测算,评估了宁夏水洞沟段生态景观长廊森林涵养水源、保育土壤、固碳释氧等7项生态服务功能及其价值。结果表明:(1)水洞沟段生态景观长廊森林生态系统涵养水源2 896.18 m~3/a,保育土壤599.99 t/a,固碳释氧量603.59 t/a,积累营养物质268.71 t/a,滞尘量332 383.2 kg/a,吸收有害污染物质3 361.21 kg/a;(2)水洞沟段生态景观长廊森林生态系统服务功能价值量为为569 810.75元/a,各生态服务功能价值排序为固碳释氧(26.79%)>森林游憩(20.84%)>物种保育(18.02%)>净化大气环境>(14.45%)>保育土壤(13.34%)>涵养水源(3.30%)>积累营养物质(3.27%);(3)水洞沟段生态景观长廊森林单位面积(hm~2)生态服务功能价值为27 749.06元/a,按森林类型排序为油松林(106 945.50元/a)>桧柏林(56 640.87元/a)>侧柏林(53 624.61元/a)>软阔林(37 328.31元/a)>硬阔林(36 481.35元/a)>樟子松林(36 139.87元/a)>灌木(22 550.82元/a)。     

Comparison of Carbon Stocks Between Mixed and Pine-Dominated Forest Stands Within the Gwalinidaha Community Forest in Lalitpur District, Nepal

Forests play an important role in the global carbon cycle as both a source and sink of carbon. The carbon stock in a forest is affected by climate, tree species and forest management. The community forestry program of Nepal has been successful in reviving degraded forest patches in the Mid-hills but there is a lack of information whether mixed or pine plantations store more carbon. This study estimated and compared carbon stocks in mixed and pine-dominated forest stands within the Gwalinidaha Community Forest of Lalitpur District, Central Nepal. Carbon components considered include tree biomass carbon, root biomass carbon, litter biomass carbon and soil organic carbon. Total carbon stock of the forest is estimated to be 2,250.24 tons with average carbon stock of 166.68 tons/ha. Total carbon stock per hectare was found to be higher in the pine-dominated forest as compared to mixed forest due to the larger tree biomass although the litter carbon and soil organic carbon estimates are higher in the latter. The Community Forestry of Nepal has a huge potential for carbon storage and the pine-dominated forest has a greater carbon stock than mixed forest.     

Conservation and Sustainable Exploitation of Forest Ecosystem in Upper Reaches of the Yangtze River -Case Study on Gongga Mountain

The deforestation on large scale in the upper reaches of Yangtze River has caused serious problems of ecosystem and environment. Restoration of the degenerated forest ecosystems is one of the main research fields. Taking Gongga Mountain as an example, degeneration features and existing problems of forest ecosystems are analyzed in this paper, and the measures are also proposed.     

森林生态系统的生物多样性保护问题

生物多样性的保护和可持续的利用对森林的保护与可持续经营具有特别重要的意义,生物多样性保护在森林生态系统管理中也越来越显示其重要性。讨论全球森林生态系统生物多样性保护的发展趋势及森林生态系统生物多样性保护的理论和对策,以及生物多样性指数在评价生物多样性管理的应用,提出我国生物多样性保护研究应该加强的方向。     

控制性项目在森林城市建设中的关键作用——以茂名市为例

以茂名市为例,将国家森林城市建设中的控制性项目、总体布局、创建达标作为研究对象,重点分析控制性项目在森林城市建设中所起的关键性作用,阐述研究对象之间的相互关联,并着重讨论了在今后的实际工作中如何处理好三者之间的关系,以期为其它城市开展森林城市建设提供启示。     

谈谈东北林业经营目标问题--以森林生态为主体的建设和东北林区森林资源的发展

论述了经营目标的内涵及重要性,分析了东北林业发展的历史和现状,认为以森林生态为主体的森林资源建设是东北林业持续发展的基本方向,东北地区林业应走以森林生态为主体的森林资源再造型和恢复型道路。     

Sustainability Attributes of a Small-Scale Betel Leaf Agroforestry System: A Case Study in North-eastern Hill Forests of Bangladesh

The Khasia ethnic community of Bangladesh has been a population of forest villagers in the north-eastern hill forests of Bangladesh since the early 1950s, practicing a betel leaf-based agroforestry system on land granted by the Forest Department. Taking a sample forest village of the Sylhet forest division as a case study, this article examines the sustainability attributes of betel leaf production in the agroforestry system. The presence of several positive attributes of sustainability including the composition of agroforestry, disease control, soil fertility management, profitability, socio-cultural acceptability and institutional support indicate that betel leaf production within the agroforestry system is stable under the prevailing traditional management system. Income from the sale of betel leaf is the principal livelihood means and villager’s reciprocal contributions help to conserve forest resources. However, problems with land ownership and regular agreement renewal need to be resolved for the sake of their livelihoods and forest conservation.

Consumption Patterns of Fuelwood in Rural Households of Dolakha District,Nepal: Reflections from Community Forest User Groups

Biomass plays a vital role in the energy supply of many developing countries. It is the major energy source for the rural population of Nepal, where 70 % of the total energy is derived from woody plant biomass in the form of fuelwood. The main aim of this study is to describe the fuelwood consumption pattern and the role of community forests and trees on private farmland in biomass supply to rural households in Nepal. The study investigates whether demography and socioeconomic attributes of households affect fuelwood consumption. A household survey was conducted, along with measurements of fuelwood mass for six community forest user groups in Dolakha district of Nepal. Average daily household fuelwood consumption was estimated to be 8.4 kg, giving a mean annual consumption of 3060 kg per household. Per capita fuelwood consumption per day was found to be 1.7 kg. Total fuelwood consumption of households is significantly correlated with household size, ownership of cultivated irrigated terraces and number of livestock per household, and negatively significantly correlated with ownership of cultivated rain-fed terraces. Fuelwood consumption varies significantly between seasons. Among various sources of biomass energy, fuelwood from community forests contributes 23 % and trees on private farmland contribute 12 %. The rest is provided from other biomass sources, including the remains of fodder collected from private farmland vegetation, wood previously used for fences and trellises in private farmland, crop residues, and purchased fuelwood.     

美国木材生产、自然保护之争与林业发展道路

本文是对赵士洞、陈华两先生《新林业》一文(见本刊1991年第1期)的补充,从另一个侧面介绍美国林业生产与自然保护之间的斗争实质。林务局《新远景》计划三种模式林业,勾绘了又一个美国林业发展思路。中国林业面临的问题远比美国复杂得多。新理论既要兼顾生产与生态环境,又必须便于操作,经济上可行。