Strategies for reducing subsurface drainage in irrigated agriculture through improved irrigation

The traditional approach ofinstalling subsurface drainage systems tosolve shallow ground water problems is notfeasible along the west side of the SanJoaquin Valley of California because of thelack of drain water disposal methods thatare economical, technically feasible, andenvironmentally friendly. Thus, optionssuch as drainage reduction through improvedirrigation and drain water reuse are beingexamined as methods for coping with thesubsurface drainage problem. This paperdiscusses options for reducing subsurfacedrainage through improved irrigationpractices. Options are discussed forimproving irrigation system design such asupgrading existing irrigation methods andconverting to systems with higher potentialirrigation efficiencies. Methods forimproving water management are alsopresented. Case studies on upgradingexisting systems or converting to otherirrigation methods are presented along with study results of the effect of variouspolicies on reducing subsurface drainage.     

黄河下游灌区农田排水再利用效应模拟评价

在田间试验观测基础上,采用SWAP模型分析黄河下游簸箕李引黄灌区农田排水再利用下的土壤盐分季节性变化以及地下水位对土壤盐分剖面分布的影响,模拟农田排水补灌对作物产量的效应。研究结果表明,咸排水补灌引起的土壤盐分积聚主要在冬小麦生长期,夏玉米生长期内并不明显,有效地控制地下水位有助于减少土壤盐分累积量,维系作物根区的盐分平衡。利用含盐量为4mg/cm3以下的农田排水在冬小麦生长后期水分亏缺阶段进行补灌,可在基本不影响随后夏玉米产量的基础上,不同程度地改善冬小麦产量。对缺水严重的黄河下游引黄灌区,农田排水再利用是缓解水资源供需矛盾、改善作物产量的一种有效水管理措施。     

Evaluating the Impact of Irrigation and Drainage Policies on Agricultural Sustainability

Farmers in the Broadview Water District in central Californiahave been improving irrigation practices in response to risingirrigation water prices and reductions in water supply since1989, when incentive policies were first implemented to reducethe volume of subsurface drain water generated in theDistrict. The average salinity of water deliveries hasincreased, over time, as the District has recycled largeamounts of drainage water to achieve regional restrictions ondrainage water discharge. We review irrigation and drainageactivities in Broadview since 1986 with an emphasis on thesustainability of crop production when drainage discharge islimited. Average cotton yields in Broadview have declined inrecent years, both nominally and in comparison with averageyields reported for the large county in which Broadview islocated. Average tomato yields in Broadview have increased inrecent years, but county-wide yields have exceeded Broadviewyields with greater frequency than in the late 1980s. Theseobservations suggest that average crop yields in Broadview maybe starting to reflect the increasing salinity of soil andwater resources, which may be due in part to persistentrestrictions on drainage water discharge.     

Modeling solute transport in sub-surface drained soil-aquifer system of irrigated lands

A two-dimensional finite element model of solute transport in a tile — drained soil — aquifer system has been applied to study the effects of the depth of impervious layer and quality of irrigation water on salt distribution during drainage of an initially highly saline soil. The model assumes steady state water movement through partially saturated soil and to drains in the saturated zone. The exact in time numerical solution yields explicit expressions for concentration field at any future time without having to compute concentrations at intermediate times. The model facilitates predictions of long-term effects of different irrigation and drainage practices on concentration of drainage effluent and salt distribution in the soil and groundwater. The model results indicated that the depth of impervious layer from drain level, d_I, does not significantly influence the salt distribution in the surface 1 m root zone of different drain spacings (drain spacing (2S)=25, 50, 75 m; drain depth (d_d)=1.8 m), its effect in the aquifer becomes dominant as drain spacing increases. It was also observed that d_I significantly governs the quality of drainage effluent. The salinity of drainage water increases with increasing d_I in all drain spacings and this effect magnifies with time. The model was also applied to study the effects of salinity of irrigation water in four drain spacing-drain depth combinations: (2S=48 m, d_d=1.0 m; 2S=67 m, d_d=1.5 m; 2S=77 m, d_d=2.0 m; 2S=85 m, d_d=2.5 m). The results indicated that a favorable salt balance can be maintained in the root zone even while irrigating with water up to 5 dS/m salinity in drains installed at 48 to 67 m spacing and 1.0 to 1.5 m depth. Further, irrespective of the quality of irrigation water, the deep, widely spaced drains (d_d=2.5 m, 2S=85 m) produced much saline drainage effluent during the initial few years of operation of the drainage system than the more shallow, closely spaced drains, thus posing a more serious effluent disposal problem.

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Résumé Considérant les conséquences potentiellement sérieuses de la pollution du sol et de l'eau souterraine dans l'agriculture irriguée, il est devenu absolument nécessaire de développer des modèles de simulation en vue d'évaluer les effects à long terme des méthodes agricoles modernes. Un modèle d'éléments finis à deux dimensions du transport en solution dans un système de sol aquifère drainé au moyen de tuyaux a été développé et validé sur le terrain (Kamra et al. 1991 a, b). Le modèle assume le mouvement de l'eau à régime constant à travers un sol partiellement saturé et jusqu'aux drains dans la zone saturée. La solution numérique exacte dans le temps produit des expressions explicites pour le champ de concentration à un temps future quelconque sans avoir à calculer les concentrations aux temps intermédiares. Le modèle facilite les prédictions des effets à long terme des diverses méthodes d'irrigation et de drainage sur la concentration des effluents de drainage et sur la distribution de la salinité dans le sol et dans l'eau souterraine. Les résultats du modèle relatifs aux effets de la profondeur de la couche imperméable et de la qualité de l'eau d'irrigation sur la distribution de la salinité lors du drainage d'un sol fortement salé à l'origine sont mentionnés dans la présente communication.Les résultats du modéle ont indiqué que la profondeur de la couche imperméable depuis le niveau du drain, d_I, n'influence pas d'une façon significative la distribution de la salinité dans la zone superficielle radiculaire de 1 m des divers écartements de drains (écartement de drains, 2S=25, 50, 75 m; profondeur des drains, d_d=1.8 m); son effet dans l'aquifère devient dominant à mesure que l'écartement de drains augmente. On a aussi constaté que le niveau du drain d_I influence d'une manière significative les effluents du drainage. La salinité de l'eau de drainage augmente à mesure que d_I augmente dans tous les écartements de drains et cet effet s'amplifie avec le temps. Le modèle a été aussi appliqué pour étudier les effets de la salinité de l'eau d'irrigation dans le cas de quatre conbinaisons d'écartement de drain et de profondeur de drain: (2S=48 m, d_d=1,0 m; 2S=67 m, d_d=1,5 m; 2S=77 m, d_d=2,0 m; 2S=85 m, d_d=2,5 m). Les résultats ont indiqué qu'un bilan de salinité favorable peut être maintenu dans la zone radiculaire même en irrigant avec de l'eau d'une salinité de 5 dS/m dans des drains installés à un écartement de 48 à 67 m et une profondeur de 1,0 à 1,5 m. De plus, indépendamment de la qualité de l'eau d'irrigation les drains profonds à grand écartement (d_d=2,5 m, 2S=85 m) produisaient une grande quantité d'effluents salés de drainage durant les quelques premières années de l'exploitation du système de drainage par rapport aux drains peu profonds à écartement serré, posant ainsi un problème plus sérieux d'évacuation des effluents.Les résultats du développement et de l'évaluation du modèle on montré qu'il peut être utilement employé en vue d'une évaluation judicieuse de la variation de temps escomptée dans la salinité des effluents de drainage lors de la mise en valeur des sols salins et peut ainsi aider à formuler son règlement plus sûr du point de vue environnement et les projects d'évacuation.

     

淮北平原区基于大沟蓄水技术的农田水资源调控模式

通过在安徽淮北平原的大田原型试验,分析了利用农田排水大沟进行控制蓄水的可行性及其对地表径流、地下水和土壤水的调控效果,提出了平原区依托大沟控制蓄水的农田水资源调控系统成套技术参数和模式。结果表明,单位长度大沟年调蓄水量为1.9×104m3/km左右,其影响范围内的农田地下水位较无控制大沟平均抬高约0.3~0.5 m,每年可增加作物对地下水的直接利用量50~80 mm,区域年农田水资源调控总量110 mm左右,约占当地年均降雨量的13%;只要控制合理、管理得当,不会因此而影响排水系统对农田涝渍的有效控制或降低原有排水工程的除涝降渍标准。以大沟控制蓄水进行农田水资源调控这一技术模式,是适合淮北平原区特点的解决水资源短缺和改善农田生态环境、调控区域水资源时空合理分布的有效途径。     

Lysimeter study on the use of biodrainage to control waterlogging and secondary salinization in (canal) irrigated arid/semi-arid environment

The study describes the capacity of trees to control the rise in water table and thus prevent the formation of waterlogged soils and development of secondary salinization in canal irrigated areas. It was conducted in RCC lysimeters of 1.2 m dia. and 2.5 m depth filled with sandy loam alluvial soil (Typic Ustochrept), with provisions to maintain water table depth at 1, 1.5 and 2 m from the surface and groundwater salinity at 0.4, 3, 6, 9 and 12 dS m-1. The amount of water biodrained by eucalyptus (Eucalyptus tereticornis) and bamboo (Bambusa arundinacea) at the given water table depths and groundwater salinity levels was monitored over four years by daily measuring the water needed for maintaining the water table. The trees continued to absorb and transpire water throughout the year, the capacity being more in summer and rainy than that was in the winter season. The eucalyptus plant could biodrain 2880, 5499, 5518 and 5148 mm of water in the first, second, third and fourth year of study period, from non-saline groundwater and a water table depth of 1.5 m. The amount of water biodrained was more at 1.5 m as compared to 1 and 2 m water table depths. The biodrainage capacity of trees was significantly affected by the salinity of the groundwater. However, even at salinity of 12 dS m-1, the eucalyptus plant biodrained 53% of that under non-saline conditions. It was calculated that biodrainage could control water table rises upto 1.95, 3.48, 3.76 and 3.64 m in first, second, third and fourth year, respectively. The secondary salinity developed in the root zone, upto 45 cm depth, did not exceed 4 dS m-1 even at water table depth of 1 m with salinity of 12 dS m-1. The volume of water biodrained by bamboo increased with time and could control water table rises upto 1.09, 1.86, 2.46 and 2.96 m in first, second, third and fourth year of growth, respectively.This study indicates that due to high transpiration capacity and an ability to extract water from deeper layers containing saline groundwater, the trees can control the rise in water table in irrigation command areas and prevent the formation of waterlogged and eventually the saline wastelands.     

中国的农田排水技术进展与研究展望

涝渍盐碱灾害是我国不少地区农业生产发展的主要障碍,提高防御涝渍盐碱灾害的能力,对加速发展农业生产有着重要的现实意义和战略意义。长期的实践证明,农田排水在防御涝渍灾害和土壤盐碱化、改善田间耕作管理、增加农作物产量、促进国民经济发展等方面起着积极的作用。阐述了农田排水技术的重要性,回顾了排水技术的发展与主要实践,指出排水领域存在的问题和差距,结合我国国情,提出今后农田排水领域的研究发展方向。     

宁夏青铜峡灌区引退水规律研究

针对宁夏青铜峡灌区的引水和退水规律问题,采用数理统计和时间序列的方法,对青铜峡灌区引、退水的年内、年际变化规律以及长期变化趋势进行了研究,结果发现引、退水在年内呈周期性季节性变化,年际间上下波动,在近期内呈下降趋势,年引水量和退水量时间序列是年际间相互关联的非平稳时间序列。     

高层建筑给排水节水节能研究

近年来,随着资源紧缺现象的加剧,人们的环保意识不断增强。针对高层建筑给排水节能节水方面进行了探讨,并根据高层建筑给排水功能的特点,对高层建筑给排水节水节能着重进行了介绍。     

Realizing the Potential of Integrated Irrigation and Drainage Water Management for Meeting Crop Water Requirements in Semi-Arid and Arid Areas

In situ use of ground water by plants is one optionbeing considered to reduce discharge of subsurfacedrainage water from irrigated agriculture. Laboratory, lysimeter, and field studies havedemonstrated that crops can use significant quantitiesof water from shallow ground water. However, moststudies lack the data needed to include the crop wateruse into an integrated irrigation and drainage watermanagement system. This paper describes previousstudies which demonstrated the potential use of groundwater to support plant growth and the associatedlimitations. Included are results from three fieldstudies which demonstrated some of the managementtechniques needed to develop an integrated system. The field studies demonstrated that approximately 40to 45% of the water requirement for cotton can bederived from shallow saline ground water. Thatregulation of the outflow will result in increasinguse. Implementation of integrated management ofirrigation and subsurface drainage systems is a viableand sustainable alternative in the management ofsubsurface drainage water from arid and semi-aridareas only if soil salinity can be managed and if thesystem is profitable.     

市政工程中给排水施工的管理分析

随着国内城市化的推进,市政工程的给排水工程越发显得重要。传统的给排水施工技术已经无法满足城市发展要求,社会对给排水的施工质量提出了更高地要求。文章结合当前给排水施工管理现状,对给排水施工的施工管理各方面进行简要探析。     

Managing salinity and waterlogging in the Indus Basin of Pakistan

Waterlogging and salinization are major impediment to the sustainability of irrigated lands and livelihoods of the farmers, especially the smallholders, in the affected areas of the Indus Basin. These problems are the result of a multitude of factors, including seepage from unlined earthen canals system, inadequate provision of surface and subsurface drainage, poor water management practices, insufficient water supplies and use of poor quality groundwater for irrigation. About 6.3 million ha are affected by different levels and types of salinity, out of which nearly half are under irrigated agriculture. Since the early 1960s, several efforts have been made to improve the management of salt-affected and waterlogged soils. These include lowering groundwater levels through deep tubewells, leaching of salts by excess irrigation, application of chemical amendments (e.g. gypsum, acids, organic matter), and the use of biological and physical methods. However, in spite of huge investments, the results have in general been disappointing and the problems of waterlogging and salinity persist.This paper reviews sources, causes and extent of salinity and waterlogging problems in the Indus Basin. Measures taken to overcome these problems over the last four decades are also discussed. The results reveal that the installed drainage systems were initially successful in lowering groundwater table and reducing salinity in affected areas. However, poor operation and maintenance of these systems and provision of inadequate facilities for the disposal of saline drainage effluent resulted in limited overall success. The paper suggests that to ensure the sustainability of irrigated agriculture in the Indus Basin, technical and financial support is needed and enhanced institutional arrangements including coordination among different federal and provincial government agencies to resolve inter-provincial water allocation and water related issues is required.     

灌排模式对稻田作物水足迹的影响

设置浅水勤灌(FSI)、浅湿灌溉(WSI)、控制灌溉(CI)和蓄水控灌(RC-CI)4种灌排模式,于2017-2018年进行了桶栽观测试验,利用作物水足迹计算方法量化蓝、绿、灰水足迹,分析灌排模式对水稻水足迹及其组成的影响.结果表明:在不同灌排模式下,水稻作物水足迹、组成及其效率均存在差异.所有处理水足迹的范围为846...     

塑料大棚控制排水系统设计及水管理研究

采用水管理软件DRAINMOD,以SEW30为指标,确定塑料大棚暗管控制排水系统的间距和埋深。然后根据淋洗土壤盐分的需要,选取不同降雨水平年,采用不同的暗管控制排水出口深度及不同的灌水量,共组合成9种方案,以SEW30、土壤0~60 cm土层盐分脱减率、排水量作为评价指标,分析出研究区不同降雨水平年的水管理方案：丰水年...     

多阶段受涝渍综合影响的农田排水指标试验研究

通过对棉花2年(2003~2004年)的涝渍兼治农田排水试验,研究了作物在全生育阶段均受涝渍影响的农田排水指标,还对多阶段涝渍共同作用下的作物水分生产函数进行了研究。通过对2年的实测数据的分析可以看出:用涝渍共同作用下的农田排水指标与棉花的相对产量之间有较好的相关关系,并对各生育阶段对涝渍的敏感性进行了排序,可供涝渍综合影响下排水系统的设计与运行管理参考。     

农田土壤中土壤水渗漏与硝态氮淋失的模拟研究

应用HYDRUS-1D模型对黄淮海平原的主要土壤(黄潮土和风沙土)中水分与硝态氮的垂直运移规律进行了模拟分析。对模型参数的敏感性分析表明:饱和水力传导度是最敏感的参数,饱和含水量的敏感性次之。数值模拟结果表明:该地区在传统水氮管理制度下,土壤水渗漏和硝态氮淋失非常严重;全耕作年风沙土的土壤水渗漏大于黄潮土,分别为34.3cm和22.7cm,占灌水量的42.1%和74.6%;风沙土的硝态氮淋失大于黄潮土,分别为108.0kg/hm和76.6kg/hm,占总输入氮量的25.3%、14.3%。     

深圳水库污水截排工程规模的选择

在如何选定污水截排工程的截排规模上，分析了套用市政排水截流倍数或选取某频率洪峰流量来确定截排流量的方法的不足，结合水库水质以面源污染为主的特征，采用综合选择方法——即推求典型年降雨所形成的全年逐时径流过程和全年径流量，计算各截排流量下的截排水量，通过水库水质模型，根据各截排流量对应未截排水量所携带的入库污染负荷量，建立截排流量与水库水质的关系，最终选定符合水库水质标准的截排流量为工程规模。     

我国主要棉区水资源状况及灌溉排水发展方向

根据我国主要棉区137个气象站点降雨量数据、全国灌溉试验数据以及近几年各省水资源公报数据,以GIS为主要工具系统分析了我国主要棉区棉花生育期降水、地表水资源、地下水资源以及水资源总量空间分布状况,根据我国主要棉区的棉花需水特点和降雨利用情况,估算了各分区的棉花净灌溉需水量,提出了各分区节水灌溉发展方向。     

平原河网地区稻田排水过程及其受外河影响的研究

为了探寻符合平原河网地区特点的排水系统最佳布置及管理方案,根据江苏常熟稻田排水观测试验,结合田间水文模型-DRAINMOD模型,分析了河网地区独特的水量平衡关系,确定了稻田排水量以及农田与外河的交换水量,并根据研究区的排水要求计算了可以削减的排水量。结果表明,在现有灌排制度下,生长期内稻田实际排水量约816mm,远高于当地所推荐的适宜排水量,可削减排水量约216mm,占目前灌水量的21.4%;按照当地所推荐的适宜排水量,利用DRAINMOD模型,当暗管埋深为90cm时,排水间距以25m为宜。研究区农田与外河的水位差较小,当外河距离农田大于30m时,实际水量交换很小;外河对农田的影响主要表现为对农田排水系统功能的抑制作用。     

Conjunctive use of canal and groundwater in Punjab,Pakistan: management and policy options

Data from 41 watercourses commands in Pakistan show that, as expected, farmers in head end reaches of canals receive more canal water than those in tail end reaches. Contrary to conventional wisdom, however, these head end farmers also use more groundwater than those at the tail end. Overall, groundwater plays a more important role in irrigation than surface water, ranging from 65% dependence on pumped water in head end areas to over 90% in tail end areas. This means that groundwater is no longer supplemental to canal water, but is an integral part of the irrigated agricultural environment. However, the cropping choices of farmers appear to reflect the amount of good quality canal water they receive: head end farmers are able to grow more high value basmati rice in the summer and more vegetables in the winter, leaving tail enders to rely on less valuable crops such as fodder and wheat.Tail end areas are not only deprived of their fair share of surface water: they have to pump proportionately more groundwater which shows decreasing quality towards the tail. Typically, head end areas have groundwater with EC values of less than 1.0 dS/m, rising to over 2.0 dS/m in tail end areas. When the quality of both surface and groundwater used by farmers is examined, only the top 40% of the distributary gets water of adequate quality, the next 40% get below average quality, while the tail 20% of farmers irrigate with water that is classified as saline.Because of higher dependence on more expensive groundwater tail enders use less water per unit area, thereby reducing the leaching requirement. The result is a clear increase in soil salinity from head to tail along distributary canals, and there is some evidence of land abandonment in tail end watercourses due to excess salinity.The implications of these results are far reaching. Government policy includes plans to divert significant quantities of fresh canal water to areas underlain by saline groundwater on the basis that farmers already have adapted to pumping fresh groundwater. The results reported suggest that if this policy were implemented, there is a risk that over-dependence on fresh groundwater could lead to an intensification of the rate of soil salinization and deterioration of quality in areas currently classified as fresh groundwater zones.At present, the location and utilization of privately owned shallow tubewells is not monitored, and thus it is not possible for government agencies to determine just how much water of different qualities is being used. Further, canal water deliveries, public deep well monitoring, watercourse monitoring programs, soil salinity measurements, and agricultural performance monitoring are all scattered among different agencies and organizations, making the task of effective conjunctive management of surface and groundwater even more difficult.Conventional wisdom: Groundwater in Pakistan ... where it exists within the canal system ... is used to supplement surface water supplies to meet peaks in demand. (WAPDA, 1990)