Effect of Lipid Source and Concentration on Somatic Growth of Juvenile Green Sea Urchins, Strongylocentrotus droebachiensis

Supplying juvenile sea urchins with an abundant supply of resources and essential nutrients for growth will facilitate somatic growth and, hence, improve the success of the sea urchin aquaculture industry. Lipids are essential in physical processes such as membrane production and are a concentrated source of energy. This study, using prepared diets, tested the effects of lipid sources containing different major fatty acids (i.e., n‐3 and/or n‐6) (Part 1) and lipid concentration (i.e., 1, 3, 7, and 10%) (Part 2) on the somatic (i.e., test or shell) growth of two size cohorts (7.0‐ and 15.3‐mm average initial test diameter [TD]) of juvenile green sea urchins, Strongylocentrotus droebachiensis. The growth of the sea urchins fed prepared diets was compared to the growth of sea urchins fed a kelp reference diet, Laminaria longicruris. After both feeding trials, the kelp‐fed sea urchins had superior test growth and were more similar in physical appearance to wild sea urchins (i.e., test color, spine length, and gonad color). The sea urchins fed the prepared diets had pale test color, short, stubby spines, and large, pale‐colored gonads compared to wild sea urchins. The smaller cohort of sea urchins grew at a faster rate, but growth patterns for both cohorts were similar. The juveniles fed the prepared diets (in both feeding trials) had high initial growth rates that decreased after approximately 100 d compared to the kelp‐fed juveniles. Differences in test growth were not shown to be affected by sea urchin size (i.e., similar results for both cohorts) or by differences in dietary lipid sources (i.e., the presence of n‐3 and/or n‐6 fatty acids). However, the sea urchins fed diets with lower lipid concentration (≤3%) had larger average TDs than those fed diets with higher lipid concentrations (≥7%). Differences in test growth and physical appearance among those fed the prepared diets and kelp may have been because of nutritional deficiencies in the prepared diets.     

Effect of Dietary Minerals and Pigment on Somatic Growth of Juvenile Green Sea Urchins, Strongylocentrotus droebachiensis

This study investigated the effects of dietary minerals and pigments in prepared diets on the somatic growth performance of wild and hatchery‐reared juvenile green sea urchins, Strongylocentrotus droebachiensis, by two feeding trials. In the first feeding trial, a modified Bernhart‐Tomerelli salt mix (BT) at 0, 1.5, 3, 6, and 15% dry mass and a Shur‐Gain/Maple Leaf Foods mineral mix at 3 and 6% dry mass were used to test for mineral effects. Pigment effects were tested by incorporating 1.25% Algro? to the prepared diets (i.e., 250 mg of beta‐carotene per kilogram of diet). Sea urchins (13–15 mm of initial test diameter [TD]) collected from the wild were fed the prepared diets over 154 d. The sea urchins that were fed the pigmented diets had significantly greater test growth than those fed the nonpigmented diets, and mineral concentration in the pigmented diets was directly related to juvenile size at the end of the feeding trial. A sample of juveniles from each treatment group was sacrificed to determine test, gonad, and gut yields and ash concentrations. Ash concentrations in the test and gonad were higher for juveniles fed pigmented diets than for those fed nonpigmented diets with similar mineral concentration, suggesting an interaction between minerals and pigments within the juvenile sea urchins. The second feeding trail used two size cohorts of hatchery‐reared juveniles ranging from 1–2 mm and 2–3 mm of initial TD to compare the growth of sea urchins fed either the pigmented diet with 15% BT (i.e., the best diet in the first feeding trial) or kelp, Laminaria longicruris, over 159 d. Growth performance was similar for both cohorts, indicating no size effect, but the juveniles fed the prepared diet were significantly larger at the end of the feeding trial than those fed kelp. This suggests that prepared diets with pigment and high mineral concentration can outperform kelp, and be utilized for juvenile green sea urchins to increase test growth.     

Effect of Protein Source and Concentration on Somatic Growth of Juvenile Green Sea Urchins Strongylocentrotus droebachiensis

Abstract— An important aspect in the development of any aquaculture industry is the maximization of juvenile somatic growth (i.e., body growth) to reduce production time and increase the size of the final product. In this study, green sea urchins Strongylocentrotus clroebachiensis were fed a prepared diet from 4 December 1998 to 10 September 1999 (i.e., 280 d) in a laboratory to investigate the effect of protein source (soybean andlor fish), protein concentration (20,30,40, and 50% dry mass) and juvenile size (4‐8 mm and 12‐20 mm initial test diameter) on somatic growth. A natural diet of Laminwia longicrurus (i.e., kelp) was used as a reference. There was no difference in initial size among the treatments for either the smaller cohort 1 or the larger cohort 2 sea urchins (6.3 mm and 13.8 mm initial average test diameter, respectively) (P > 0.05 for all tests). After 280 d, the sea urchins fed kelp had an average size of 20.7 mm and 24.5 mm (cohort 1 and cohort 2, respectively). The final average sizes of the sea urchins fed the prepared diets, which did not relate to dietary protein concentrations andlor protein source, ranged from 13.2 mm to 16.2 mm (cohort 1) and from 20.4 mm to 22.9 mm (cohort 2), and were significantly smaller than the kelpfed sea urchins (P < 0.05 and P < 0.001, cohort 1 and cohort 2, respectively). All treatments experienced 95% survivorship or greater. Sea urchin size appears to affect growth rate when optimal conditions for growth are available (i.e., diet and water temperature). As water temperatures increased during the summer of 1999, the sea urchins in cohort 1 fed kelp had a significantly higher growth rate (0.069 dd) than the cohort 2 kelpfed sea urchins (0.052 dd) (P < 0.05). However, within each cohort, there were no significant difference in growth rate (P > 0.05) among the sea urchins fed prepared diets, suggesting sea urchins do not require high concentrations of dietary protein for superior growth, and that plant protein can substitute fish protein in sea urchin diets. Furthermore, the sea urchins fed the prepared diets had poorer test quality and larger gonad yields (13‐22%) compared to the kelpfed sea urchins (4.2%) and a wild sample of sea urchins of similar size (4.0%). The results suggest that the sea urchins fed the prepared diets allocated more energy to gonad production, whereas those fed a natural diet allocated more energy toward test production. To address this gap, more research is required to identify the nutritional components required for test growth that were present in kelp, but appeared to be deficient in the prepared diets.     

Optimizing Prepared Feed Ration for Gonad Production of the Green Sea Urchin Strongylocentrotus droebachiensis

Adult green sea urchins Strongylocentrotus droebachiensis were fed three different quantities (0.25, 0.50, 1.00% body weight/d) of a prepared feed during a 12‐wk experiment to determine the effect of food ration on gonad quantity and quality. A diet of kelp, Laminaria longicruris and/or L. digitata, fed at satiation (3% body weight/d) and urchins taken from the wild at the beginning and end of the experiment served as controls. Urchins fed prepared feed or kelp increased their percent gonad yield significantly over the experimental period. Affer 12 wk, individuals fed the prepared diet at 0.50 or 1.00% body weighffd had significantly higher percent gonad yields (mean ± SEM: 23.5 ± 0.6% and 23.4 ± 0.7%, respectively) than urchins fed at 0.25% body weight/d (18.0 ± 1.0%) or control animals given kelp (18.3 ± 0.8%). There was no significant difference in gonad yield between the 0.50 and 1.00% feeding levels. All feeding treatments had significantly higher percent gonad yields than urchins sampled from the wild at the end of the experiment that had recently spawned (2.8 ± 0.5%). There was no significant difference in gonad taste among urchins fed the prepared diet at 0.25% body weight/d, those given kelp, or those collected from the wild at the end of the experiment (good to very good ratings), but all of these treatments had significantly better tasting gonads than urchins given the prepared feed at 0.50 or 1.00% body weight/d (satisfactory ratings). Gonad taste rating of urchins fed a prepared diet was dependent on ration with greater feed amounts leading to worse tasting gonads (linear regression: r²= 0.68, P < 0.01). Gonad color, texture, and firmness did not differ significantly among any of the feed ration treatments or kelp control. Results suggest that the best ration for prepared feed would be 0.50% body weightld since this would optimize gonad yield while minimizing feed costs. Further research on prepared feeds is required to optimize both gonad color and taste.     

Growth of Juvenile Green Sea Urchins,Strongylocentrotus droebachiensis,Fed Formulated Feeds with Varying Protein Levels Compared with a Macroalgal Diet and a Commercial Abalone Feed

The effects of varying protein and carbohydrate levels in prepared diets on the somatic growth of juvenile green sea urchins, Strongylocentrotus droebachiensis, were examined. Ten diets were tested on 600 hatchery reared urchins (mean start weight = 0.11 g) for 6 mo with three replicate groups per diet. Nine of the diets were prepared specifically for urchins and varied in protein (16–40% protein) and carbohydrate (29–49% carbohydrate) levels. The other two diets consisted of a commercially available abalone diet and the kelp, Saccharina latissima. Weight measurements were carried out at 6‐wk intervals, and at the end of the study urchins were individually weighed and a subsample from each treatment was analyzed for gonad weight and color. End weights after 6 mo ranged from 2.56 g for urchins fed the abalone diet to 6.11 g for urchins fed one of the prepared diets. Most of the prepared feeds outperformed kelp, and significant differences in growth were detected between some of the diets. In general, diets with lower protein levels (16–22% protein) and higher carbohydrate levels (>40% carbohydrate) produced the fastest growth. However, further diet refinement and/or use of finishing diets may be necessary to optimize gonad quality.     

The Effect of Astaxanthin in Feed and Environmental Temperature on Carotenoid Concentration in the Gonads of the Green Sea Urchin Strongylocentrotus droebachiensis Müller

The aim of this study was to investigate the long term development of carotenoid concentration in gonads and gonad development of green sea urchins reared at different temperatures and fed formulated feed containing dwerent levels of astaxanthin. Urchins, sampled from a natural population, were reared under two different temperature regimes (7 C and 12 C) and fed formulated feed containing 0, 100 and 500 mg astaxanthin/kg feed, respectively. The study lasted 112 d. Astaxanthin was detected in the groups fed feed containing astaxanthm, but in low quantities. No effect of temperature was observed on the retention of astaxanthin. Echinenone values declined throughout the study, probably due to the lack of suitable metabolic precursor for production of echinenone. Water and lipid concentration in the gonads increased throughout the study indicating the progressions of gametogenesis and the generally improved nutritional status of the animals. No significant difference in gonad index (GI) due to treatment was observed but GI varied between the sexes with male GI increasing significantly faster compared to females.     

中间球海胆精子的超低温保存技术

20 0 0年 10～ 11月 ,对大连龙王塘海区成熟的中间球海胆 (Strongylocentrotusintermedius)精子进行超低温保存研究。结果表明 :不同的抗冻保护剂 ,不同的体积分数 ,不同的冷冻方式 ,精子冻存的效果不同。以自然海水为基础溶液 ,以 12 %的二甲亚砜或 9%的甘油作为抗冻保护剂 ,稀释精液至 8× 10 7～ 11× 10 7个 /ml,距液氮表面 10cm处预冷 8min ,再浸入液氮中保存 ,解冻时直接移出液氮于 17～ 18℃自来水流水解冻 ,精子存活率分别是 95 % ,90 % ;受精率分别为 94 0 % ,86 5 %。     

Long‐term Growth Study of Male and Female Green Sea Urchins,Strongylocentrotus droebachiensis,under Constant Light and Temperature Regime

Juvenile green sea urchins, Strongylocentrotus droebachiensis, with an initial mean test diameter of 9.5 mm (±1.2 SD) were held in the laboratory, in individual compartments and at constant temperatures (8.5 C) (n = 90) for a period of 99 wk. The animals were supplied with flow‐through sea water, and fed the Nofima sea urchin manufactured feed ad libitum. Growth, survival, feed intake, feed conversion ratio (FCR), and gonad index (GI) of the sea urchins were monitored during this period. The mortality was 11% throughout the experimental period. The test diameter (TD) increased significantly with time, best described by a polynomial equation (TD = 0.8756 + 0.584Time − 0.002Time², R² = 0.995). Sex was included as dummy variable, but did not contribute significantly; hence, there were no differences in growth trajectories between males and females. The study showed there were no significant differences in body wet weight or FCR between males and females. However at the end of the experiment the female urchins had a significantly higher GI of 31.1% (±4.4), compared with the male urchins which had an average GI of 26.8% (±5.4). In conclusion, the present study showed that male and female green sea urchins have the same growth capacity and feed convention ratio but by the end of the experiment the gonad index was significantly higher in female than male urchins.     

虾夷马粪海胆壳性状对活体质量的影响效果分析

选择66只13月龄虾夷马粪海胆,测定其体积、壳径、壳高、活体质量,计算相关系数,用通径分析方法计算其他性状对活体质量作为依变量的通径系数、决定系数以及相关指数。试验结果表明,虾夷马粪海胆体积、壳径、壳高、活体质量的相关系数均达到极显著水平(P<0.01),壳径对活体质量的直接影响(0.778)最大,是影响活体质量的主要因素;体积与活体质量的相关程度很大,但是对活体质量的直接影响最小(0.098)。通径系数分析后剔除不显著自变量(体积)后,计算壳径、壳高对活体质量的复相关指数为R2=0.8978,多元回归分析建立了壳径、壳高估计活体质量的回归方程:y=-21.78+1.035x1+0.188x2     

几种饲料添加剂对虾夷马粪海胆生长指标的影响

在配合饲料中添加不同剂量的螺旋藻粉、蚕蛹粉、冬虫夏草粉以及肉毒碱等,饲喂虾夷马粪海胆(Strongylocentrotus intermedius)40 d,测定成活率、饲料系数、平均壳径及平均体重的日增长.试验结果表明.总体上配合饲料的促生长效果要明显强于海带,且饲料系数显著低于海带组(P<0.05).通过添加不同比例的肉毒碱对虾夷马粪海胆的促生长效果的比较,发现添加肉毒碱虽然促进了海胆外壳的生长,却限制了体重的增长.通过添加螺旋藻粉、蛹粉和冬虫夏草粉对虾夷马粪海胆促生长效果的比较,发现添加5%的蛹粉促生长效果最佳.     

中间球海胆早繁育苗技术的研究

中间球海胆的繁殖期通常为10－11月，通过生物促熟技术使其繁殖期可提前至4－5月。亲胆在18－20℃的条件下投喂自制的促熟饵粒培育，当亲胆积温达到1850℃时，即可进行人工催产，催产诱导率达80％以上。结果表明：促熟水温以18－20℃；促熟饵粒以HD－2＋海带为最佳，海胆幼虫培育成活率为87％，早繁育苗与10月份育苗相比可减少能源消耗，育苗生产成本可降低71％，经济效益显著。     

盐度和温度对中间球海胆摄食与存活的影响

在实验条件下，就不同盐度和温度对中间球海胆(Strongylocentrotus intermedius)摄食与存活的影响进行了观察。结果表明：20℃时的存活下限盐度为19；25℃时的存活下限盐度为26；21℃时，盐度22可致海胆停止摄食；在25℃的自然海水中，海胆能持续良好生存至少14d，但摄食停止；在28℃的自然海水中，海胆在48h内的死亡率为100％。     

二价金属离子对光棘球海胆免疫相关酶活力的影响

二价金属离子在海洋无脊椎动物免疫相关酶的活力调控中发挥重要作用。为了解二价金属离子对光棘球海胆免疫相关酶活力的影响,采用生化方法研究了8种二价金属离子在体外不同浓度下对光棘球海胆体腔液中酸/碱性磷酸酶、过氧化氢酶、超氧化物歧化酶、酚氧化酶和髓过氧化物酶活力的影响。结果显示,Cu~(2+)可明显增强碱性磷酸酶、过氧化氢酶、超氧化物歧化酶和酚氧化酶的活力;Mn~(2+)对酸性磷酸酶、碱性磷酸酶、超氧化物歧化酶和髓过氧化物酶有强烈的激活作用;Zn~(2+)对超氧化物歧化酶和酚氧化酶有强烈的抑制作用;Fe~(2+)抑制过氧化氢酶和超氧化物歧化酶的活力;Ca~(2+)对酸性磷酸酶和髓过氧化物酶有抑制作用;Mg~(2+)对碱性磷酸酶有抑制作用;Cd~(2+)对超氧化物歧化酶和酚氧化酶有抑制作用;Pb~(2+)对过氧化氢酶、超氧化物歧化酶和酚氧化酶有抑制作用。试验结果表明,适宜浓度的Mn~(2+)和Cu~(2+)对光棘球海胆的非特异性免疫系统可能有促进作用,而Fe~(2+)、Zn~(2+)、Ca~(2+)、Mg~(2+)、Pb~(2+)和Cd~(2+)可能会削弱光棘球海胆的免疫应答能力。     

筏式养殖中间球海胆生殖腺发育周年变化

1998年 3月～ 1999年 5月间调查了筏式养殖体系中中间球海胆生殖腺发育的周年变化。结果表明 ,海胆的个体大小及性别不同 ,生殖腺成熟期及生殖腺指数变化略有不同。A组 (壳径 3 5～ 5 0cm)海胆的成熟期为 6～ 10月 ,B组 (壳径 5 0～ 6 5cm)为 5～ 10月。壳径大的海胆生殖腺成熟早且成熟期长。雄性较雌性生殖腺发育较快 ,成熟较早 ,成熟期保持时间长。 10月底至 11月初生殖腺指数急剧降低 ,此时为繁殖高峰期。雄性个体的生殖腺指数在 3～10月间略高 ,其余时间无明显性别差异。除排放期和恢复期外 ,A组的生殖腺指数均略低于同期B组     

中间球海胆性腺氨基酸组成研究

试验结果表明,中间球海胆鲜味氨基酸含量占总氨基酸含量的43%以上,尤其是含有较高的甘氨酸、谷氨酸.雄性性腺鲜味氨基酸含量高于雌性,因此,雄性味更美.在生产中采集中间球海胆时期最好选在早期成熟阶段,在海胆成熟后期自然排放之前采收完毕.     

KCl诱导虾夷马粪海胆幼体变态的研究

研究了不同浓度的KCl对于虾夷马粪海胆幼体变态的诱导作用及对变态后个体生长的影响。试验结果表明,KCl对虾夷马粪海胆是一种极好的变态诱导剂,0.05 mol/L的KCl作用5~10 h诱导效果最佳,在提高变态率的同时,大大地降低了死亡率。     

KC1对中间球海胆幼虫变态的诱导效果

中间球海胆（Strongylocentrotus intermedius)八腕后期幼虫，在KC1添加浓度100mmol/L海水中，分别处理5，10，15min后，均变态为正常稚海胆，中间试验及生产应用结果表明，经KC1处理，幼虫的附着时间缩短了36h，附着率则分别增加了40．4％，27．75％。     

5种重金属对光棘球海胆胚胎的毒性作用

采用静态毒性试验方法,在水温(21±0.5)℃、盐度32条件下,研究Zn、Hg、Cu、Pb、Cd单独暴露对光棘球海胆的精卵结合和胚胎发育的毒性作用。观察了5种重金属对光棘球海胆精子超微结构的损伤。试验结果表明,3个暴露浓度下,5种重金属均可导致光棘球海胆受精率极显著下降,胚胎延滞率和胚胎畸形率极显著上升,并呈剂量—效应关系。5种重金属对海胆精子细胞超微结构的损伤,可能是导致海胆受精率降低、胚胎延滞率和畸形率升高的原因之一。     

两种海水酸化模式对中间球海胆早期发育及存活的影响

采用二氧化碳法和强酸法模拟海水酸化效应,研究两种海水酸化模式对中间球海胆早期发育及存活的影响。试验结果显示,两种海水酸化模式均能降低中间球海胆胚胎的上浮率和四腕浮游幼体的存活率;显微观察得知,两种海水酸化模式下,中间球海胆四腕浮游幼体均出现对称性缺失和骨针外露现象,且对称性缺失程度随海水pH的降低而升高;扫描电镜观察发现,两种海水酸化模式下,中间球海胆四腕浮游幼体骨针的表面及横截面均有溶蚀痕迹,且溶蚀程度随海水pH的降低而加剧。结果提示,海水酸化可通过降低胚胎上浮率、浮游幼体存活率以及破坏幼体对称性和骨针结构影响中间球海胆的早期发育及存活。     

Food Consumption, Absorption, Assimilation and Growth of the Sea Urchin Strongylocentrotus intermedius Fed a Prepared Feed and the Alga Laminaria japonica

Prepared feeds are standard for developed aquaculture programs. Prepared feeds have been shown to be effective for several species of sea urchins. We investigated the use of prepared feeds for culture of the important commercial species Strongylocentrotus intermedius by comparison with the usual food used, the brown alga Laminaria japonica . The experiment was done in the summer and consisted of two successive 30-d periods. Individuals consumed more of the alga than the prepared feed but the absorption efficiencies were the same. This probably resulted from a higher content of structural carbohydrates in the alga and a higher content of available organic matter in the feed. The amount of organic matter absorbed was the same for both foods. However, the amount of gonad production and the assimilation efficiency was greater for the prepared feed. This indicates the prepared feed is of better nutritional quality. The physiological measurements and production were greater in the first 30-d period when the temperature was < 20 C than in the second when it was > 21 C. This indicates temperature will be an important consideration in aquaculture of S. intermedius .