The inheritance of soil fabric from joints in the parent rock

The origin of ped faces in subsoils has been variously ascribed to the activities of organisms, stress-strain history and to alternating wetting and drying cycles. At three sites in the Sydney Basin the orientation of ped faces in the in situ B horizons of soils developed in dolerite and shale were measured and found to be similar to the orientation of planar joints in the parent rock. Joints in the rock, when inherited by the soil material, provided flaws which could be exploited by shrink and swell phenomena, gradually becoming permanent features. Horizontal ped faces appeared to be inherited joint or bedding planes, affected by the slope of the site to the extent that their dip increased in a downslope direction. This work confirmed previous soil fabric studies by Lafeber (1965) and demonstrated fabric anisotropy and inheritance from the parent rock.     

Exchangeable cations in rock fractions and fine earth in soil profiles of different genesis

Data on accumulated exchangeable H, Al, Fe and Mn (M_a) cations in rock fractions in German soil profiles are scarce. The objective of this study was to describe the sum of accumulated M_a cations of fine earth and rock fragments in 11 deep soil profiles of varying genesis. Soil profiles were laid out at the sites Solling, Eifel, Harz mountains and the Erzgebirge and the parent materials included sandstones, siltstones, quartzite, slate, greywacke, diabase, gneiss and quartz porphyry. Exchangeable cations in the fine earth and rock fragments were measured in depths down to 6 m. Additionally, effective porosity and specific surface of rock fragments were determined. The effective porosity of the different rock fragments ranged from 4 to 28% (v/v), indicating that the rocks were accessible to solutions. For most samples, the cation exchange capacities (CEC) of the fine earth fractions were larger than those of the rock fragments, and the CEC (fine earth)/CEC (rock) ratios decreased with depth. All 11 profiles had small (<40%) amounts of exchangeable Na, K, Mg and Ca (M_b) cations in the fine earth fraction. Exchangeable M_a and M_b cations in the rock fragments changed similarly with depth as in the fine earth fractions for all profiles. Cumulative (rock + fine earth) M_a cations from 0—200 cm ranged from 474 to 1592 kmol_c ha⁻¹. The contribution of the rock fraction to the cumulative exchangeable M_a cations accounted for 13 to 85% of the total. The sum of exchangeable M_a cations was much higher than the cumulative acid deposition in western Germany since the beginning of industrialization, suggesting that carbonic acid and organic acids contributed largely to soil acidification. The rocks contribute significantly to buffering the acidity of the seepage water by silicate weathering and cation exchange. Therefore, acidification models which consider the fine earth fraction only, may lead to an overestimation of the rate of soil and groundwater acidification.     

Mineralogy of parent rock and peaty-podzolic soil of Iremel Ridge,Southern Urals

The mineralogy of soils and parent rocks of the Iremel Ridge has been studied by the methods of micromorphology, laser diffraction, computed X-ray microtomography, and X-ray fluorescence analysis. In hard rock and soil, the major minerals have been identified: quartz, illite, and a chlorite-group mineral (Fe analogue of sudoite), as well as accessory minerals: monazite, xenotime, rutile, zircon, and florencite. It has been found that chlorite, illite, and quartz are present in all horizons of the studied peaty-podzolic soil. Insignificant amounts of mixed-layered mineral and kaolinite could be suggested in the T and EL horizons of peaty-podzolic soil. The mixed-layered mineral is most probably of soil origin, which is related to the transformation of illites inherited from the parent rock under acidic conditions.     

The effect of soil texture on the dissolution of North Carolina phosphate rock

Laboratory investigations of the dissolution of North Carolina phosphate rock (PR) in soil, as affected by soil texture, were conducted using soils created by mixing various proportions of the <45 μm and >45 μm fractions of a lateritic soil. The dissolution of PR in soil, and the resulting changes in plant available P, were estimated by measuring increases in exchangeable Ca (ΔCa) and NaHCO₃-extractable P (ΔP_b), respectively. The total fertilizer phosphate dissolved (ΔP) was calculated from δCa values based on the assumption that dissolution of PR released amounts of Ca and P in a constant ratio determined by the stoichiometry of the PR. δP increased with increasing content of <45 μm particles. AP_b also increased with the percentage of <45μ fraction, with about 20% of AP being recovered as AP_b. A smaller proportion of dissolved P was soluble in NaHCO₃ for the soil comprising only the <45μ particles. The increase in δP with increased percentage of <45 μn soil was probably due inter alia to the greater P-sorption, Ca-sorption and the pH buffering capacity of the fine grained soil constituents.     

The effect of soil moisture on the vertical movement of rock fragments by tillage

Chiselling in air-dry soils can rapidly create inverse grading of the plough layer as field experiments showed, i.e., the largest particles (rock fragments) are brought to the surface and the smallest particles concentrate at the bottom of the plough layer. Since no information about the effect of soil moisture and fine earth characteristics on this process is available laboratory experiments were conducted to examine the effect of soil moisture and fine earth characteristics on the vertical movement (segregation) of rock fragments due to tillage. An experimental trough, 120×60×40 cm³, was filled with three layers (each 4 cm thick) of fine earth (sand or silt loam), and rock fragments (1.2–2.2 and 2.7–4.0 cm). Tillage was simulated by moving a hand-held cultivator through the mixture. The results for the sandy soil matrix showed that inter-particle percolation was slowed down by soil moisture, however, at the same rate for different moisture levels. This was attributed to water-films that surround the sand particles. In the silt-loam soil matrix inter-particle percolation was stronger than that occurring in the sandy matrix at similar volumetric moisture contents but vertical movement was impossible at higher moisture contents (0.17 m³ m⁻³) because of a strong increase in stickiness. The results imply that at low moisture contents farmers in areas threatened by desertification can use moderate tillage as a means to create a surface rich in rock fragments which helps to increase water infiltration and decrease erosion.     

Feedback processes in soil genesis

Feedback can be defined as the returning of a part of the effects of a given process to its beginning or to a preceding stage so as to reinforce or modify that process. Feedback processes are self-accelerating because of continuous reinforcement of the causes starting them. Up to a certain moment, reinforcement is proportional to the effects (or output) of the process. Later, de-acceleration and termination come as one of several factors (or reactants) in the process become limiting, e.g., depletion of easily weatherable minerals, hence cessation of clay formation. In soils there are many feedback, self-terminating processes such as accumulation of organic matter in Mollisols, clay accumulation in Argids, and development of windows in duripans and dayas in soils with petrocalcic horizons. The occurrence and constancy of some morphological features in many soil profiles and soilscapes can be explained by this concept.     

The influence of parent material on soil fertility degradation in the coastal plain of Tanzania

Differences in the vulnerability of soils to fertility degradation are compared for two major soil groups located in the coastal plain of Tanzania and cropped with sisal (Agave sisalana). Ferralsols derived from intermediate gneiss of Precambrian age and Cambisols developed in Jurassic and Neogene limestones partly covered with Quaternary deposits were selected for comparison. A clear influence of parent material was apparent when soils were continuously cropped with sisal and no fertilizers were applied. Serious soil fertility decline occurs in Ferralsols, but Cambisols are resilient to chemical degradation and the fertility decline in these soils was very limited. The differences in degradation rates are explained by the lower initial fertility and low nutrient reserve of Ferralsols, while the Cambisols had higher initial fertility levels and nutrients removed by the sisal crop are replenished by the weathering of the underlying parent material. Sustainable soil fertility management of Cambisols includes only NPK fertilization, but heavy dressings of lime, organic manures and/or chemical fertilizers are required to improve the fertility status of the Ferralsols and to produce crops in a sustainable manner.     

土壤捡石机的研究进展

中国多数山区农田土壤中含有大量砾石,影响土壤的物理特性和水力特性,也影响作物播种、出苗和生长发育,同时给农田耕作和管理带来很大不便。目前在中国一般是采用人工捡拾办法将石块清出农田,劳动强度大、效率低下。针对上述问题,对国内外土壤捡石机的研究和应用现状、发展历史进行了研究,分析了典型土壤捡石机器分捡装置的工作原理,提出了适合中国山区农田特点的土壤捡石机研究方向和捡石机方案。     

Aeolian deposition and soil parent materials in northern Nigeria

The introduction considers the nature of the problem of “drift” soils in northern Nigeria. The physical environment of the survey area is described briefly and the percentages of silt, very fine sand and fine sand occurring in the soils are mapped. Textural belts are identified and the profile distribution frequencies within the belts are tabulated. Parent material origins are discussed and attempts are made to reconcile the apparently aeolian nature of the soil materials, in terms of the particle-size distribution pattern, with the various soil profile morphologies of today.     

土壤发生和发育过程定量研究进展

土壤发生和发育研究已从定性全面走向定量化研究。随土壤发育程度的提高，土壤的颗粒粒径分布特征、形态特征、微形态和矿物学特征、有机质、磁学、电化学、元素地球化学特征等诸多方面均呈现有规律的变化。因而可以根据土壤的特性推断土壤发育程序和土壤的相对年龄。     

The relationships of the clay mineral suites to the parent rocks of eight soil profiles in Sarawak,Malaysia

The clay mineralogy of eight selected soil profiles developed on acid igneous, pyroclastic and sedimentary rocks was investigated. The effects on the clay mineralogy of the parent-rock mineralogy and physical conditions within each soil profile were evaluated.The results indicate that the mineralogies of the parent rocks control the type of clay minerals formed in Sarawak. In the soils derived from pyroclastic and coarse-grained acid igneous rocks without muscovite, the clay-mineral suites consist almost exclusively of kaolinite and gibbsite with small amounts of goethite. In contrast, in the soils developed from fine-grained acid igneous and sedimentary rocks with muscovite, the clays contain relatively large amounts of interstratified mica-vermiculite and chlorite-vermiculite in addition to gibbsite and/or kaolinite. The presence of gibbsite in these soils depends on the presence of plagioclase feldspar in the parent rock.     

Assessing parent material uniformity of a red and black soil complex in the landscapes

The distribution of red and black soil (Xeralfs–Xerolls) associations in the Monarto area (South Australia) is complex and their genesis either being derived from a uniform parent material or a lithologic discontinuity is not known. The objectives of this study were (i) to assess Zr- and Ti-bearing grains as minerals resistant to chemical weathering prior to employing Zr and Ti in determining parent material uniformity, and (ii) to confirm whether pedological processes or a lithologic discontinuity may be responsible for the textural contrast within the red and black soil profiles. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and energy dispersive X-ray analysis (EDAX) were used to study chemical weathering and elemental composition of surfaces of Zr- and Ti-bearing grains. X-ray fluorescence (XRF) analysis was used to determine elemental concentrations in various soil fractions. Results showed that Zr-bearing grains consisted of only zircon having smooth clean surfaces, which are characteristic of a mineral resistant to chemical weathering. EDAX spectra confirmed that Zr was a specific element to represent zircon, suggesting its reliability to be used in assessing parent material uniformity. On the other hand, Ti derived not only from minerals (rutile/anatase) resistant but also from minerals (ilmenite/pseudorutile, biotite) susceptible to chemical weathering. This limited the usefulness of Ti as an index mineral for soil development studies. Except for Zr:Ti ratio, all other indicators of parent material uniformity, i.e., depth distribution curves of Zr and Y in various fractions and Y:Zr ratio showed no considerable inflection and variation with depth in a Xeralf (red soil). This indicated the Xeralf derived from a uniform parent material (mica schists), thereby texture contrast within a profile is due to pedological processes. On the other hand, depth distribution curves showed clear inflection and variation in Xerolls (black soils), indicating soils developed from lithologic discontinuities, so different trends in particle size fractions between 0–48 cm for MA5 and 0–59 cm for MA3 profiles compared to the underlying layers are due to parent material differences and not pedogenesis. The presence of complex red and black soil association in the landscape is attributed to the difference in parent materials, where the red soil developed from mica schist and the black soils from calcareous deposits.     

Modelling long-term in situ soil profile evolution: application to the genesis of soil profiles containing stone layers

Models of soil genesis are potentially of great importance in assessing the effects of global change on ecosystems, and may also contribute to our understanding of soil genetic processes. Many quantitative models have so far focused on individual soil genetic processes and are difficult to extrapolate to the landscape scale. A few attempts have been made to model soil evolution as a whole from a pedologic perspective. This study develops a quantitative model of soil formation at the profile scale, taking into account major soil‐forming processes. These include physical and chemical weathering of primary minerals, strain processes, and bioturbation. The model allows the quantification of the evolution of the particle size, mineral composition and bulk density of the soil. The model is applied with varying values of input parameters, and is compared with actual soil genetic processes. Running the model results in the formation of stone‐layered soil profiles. Stone‐line formation by means of bioturbation, as already described in the literature, seems to be adequately simulated. Planned improvements of the model include implementation of other major soil genetic processes such as leaching, organic matter influence, etc. This model will then have to be implemented spatially considering particularly redistribution processes, to reproduce soil formation at the landscape scale.     

Effects of parent material and land use on soil erodibility

The objective of the present investigation was to find out the effect of different parent materials and land use on soil erodibility. Four types of parent materials such as andesite, basalt, alluvial, and gypsum, and three land use types such as grass, clover, and maize, all wide spread in Erzurum Province in Turkey, were tested. Aggregate stability and soil erodibility factors were determined. The susceptibility of soils against erosion decreased in the order of parent materials basalt > andesite > alluvial > gypsum. Likewise, the susceptibility of land use can be sorted as follows: grass > clover > maize.     

The tillage effect in sustaining soil functions

This paper examines how alteration of soils by tillage changes the sustainability of soil functions. Soil tillage presents an enigma in thinking about soil sustainability in ecosystems. There is a several‐thousand‐year history of gradually increasing the disturbance of ever‐greater volumes of soil. The dominant concept was that these changes by tillage increased crop production. We now have a several‐decade concern with decreasing tillage, both for reasons of economy and sustainability. Have soil conditions changed, or do we now know more about soil science and its application to crop production? Specific soil uses, specific soils, characteristics of the site, and whether short or long‐term changes are being evaluated determine the effects of tillage in agro‐ecosystems. The largest effects of tillage are increased recycling rates and long‐term decreases in porosity and in diversity of habitat. The benefits of tillage in annual crop production appear to be a temporary improvement of water and oxygen conditions in a seedbed, and the destruction of competing plant species. Environmental concerns such as water quality, diversity of habitat, storage of carbon and nitrogen, and water partitioning are negatively affected by tillage.     

岩质边坡绿化过程中人工土壤的重建

在探讨岩质边坡绿化过程中人工土壤的性质及其在土壤分类中定位的基础上,总结目前国内高陡岩质边坡生态复绿中比较常见的厚层基材型和植被混凝土型等人工土壤配置模式的优缺点,以及当前人工土壤重建的主要方法和存在问题,阐述了人工土壤重建中团粒性、保水性和保肥性等农业技术特征以及依附性和稳定性等工程技术特性的构建要点,并对岩质边坡绿化过程中人工土壤的重建进行了展望.     

From marl to rock powder: On the history of soil fertility management by rock materials

The ancient practice of marling and the recent application of rock powder to soils are interventions into the orogenic energy budget of soils. Both are slow‐release, long‐term fertilizers or better, soil conditioners. Marls and their uses are reviewed by a study of knowledge and practices from the 1st century AD to the 1800s, for rock powders, a review of the recent theoretical and experimental literature is presented. Under pre‐industrial conditions, paucity of energy prevented the wide‐spread use of such materials, today they are marketed as by‐product of industrial operations. For marls and rock powders alike, their positive effect depends to a large extent on the soil matrix to which the minerals are applied, on the cultivar, and the specific type of applied material. Drawing parallels between the two materials, we suggest that the long‐term experience with marls could be used to study the effects of rock powders, as duration of experiments with these is most often too limited to allow conclusions.     

改性磷矿粉在石灰性土壤上的生物有效性及其机理研究

为缓解磷资源危机,充分利用不适于化学加工的磷矿资源,对磷矿采用活化技术开发利用,由此生产的改性磷肥已被证明在酸性土壤上有很高的生物有效性,但在石灰性土壤上的研究还比较少。本文选择4种不同产地(云南昆明、四川德阳、四川绵竹和贵州开阳)的磷矿粉,分别用有机活化剂和无机活化剂进行活化处理,制备改性磷矿粉,并就其在石灰性土壤对苗期春小麦的生物有效性进行了盆栽试验。结果表明,4种磷矿粉经活化处理后有效磷和水溶性磷含量均明显增加,无机活化剂提高了有效磷的含量,而有机活化剂对水溶性磷的提高幅度较大。改性磷矿粉处理均不同程度提高了石灰性土壤上春小麦的生物量干重、植株吸磷量和磷利用效率,有机活化剂处理制备的改性磷矿粉对春小麦生长的促进作用更为明显。运用红外光谱谱学技术对4种磷矿粉及相应的8种改性磷矿粉结构分析结果表明,磷矿粉经改性后其结构发生了明显变化,H2PO4和HPO42的特征谱带明显增加,增加的程度因磷矿粉的产地和活化剂种类不同而有差异。对磷矿粉化学成分分析结果表明,不同产地的磷矿粉其磷以及钙、铁、铝、镁等化学成分的含量差异较大,活化剂对磷矿粉的活化效果与磷矿粉本身的氧化物含量有关。在本试验条件下,磷矿粉Ⅲ(四川绵竹)的活化效果相对最好,与其氧化镁含量最高、总氧化物含量最低有关。不同类型活化剂对磷矿粉的活化效果不同,红外光谱分析结果表明,无机活化剂活化效果较好,而土培试验结果表明有机活化剂的活化效果较好,这一结果有待进一步的研究。     

The effect of non-instantaneous exchange on the self-diffusion of phosphate in soil

The kinetics of isotopic exchange of phosphate in a soil were studied using three techniques: (a) in shaken suspension, (b) in a system where solution circulated through a thin disc of soil, and (c) in moist soil from which solution was extracted by centrifugation with a dense immiscible liquid.
The exchange kinetics of isotope diffusing in moist soil were inferred from the concentration profile of the isotope after diffusion periods of 10-60 days. The proportion of the exchange that is effectively instantaneous in this diffusion system was much lower than in systems in which isotope is uniformly applied to the soil.
It is postulated that the difference arises because exchange of diffusing isotope is limited by access to exchange sites and not, during the period considered, by slow exchange at the solid-liquid interface.