Production constraints of smallholder pig farms in agro-ecological zones of Mpumalanga,South Africa

South African pig sector is a contributor to the agricultural industry. A study was conducted to identify the production constraints and compare the management practices in smallholder pig farms in Mpumalanga, South Africa. A total of 220 selected smallholder pig farmers were interviewed. Smallholder pig farming was predominated by male (64 %), age above 50 years (54 %), black Africans (98.6 %), and three quarters of the smallholder farmers were poor to just below average. Majority (80 %) have no pig husbandry training, while only 33 % received assistance from government’s Agricultural Department. In terms of stock, mixed breeds (89 %) from exotic pigs were mostly kept and majority (87 %) of the farmers kept ≤10 sows in their herds. Many farmers (75 %) engaged in risky behavior of buying auctioned-sourced boars, free-range boars, and untested boars from neighbors and relatives. Few (17 %) farmers practiced vaccination and only 10 % kept farm records. Majority of the responses on pre-weaning mortality (50 %) and post-weaning mortality (90 %) were within acceptable range of 1–10 and 1–5 % mortality rates, respectively. The lead causes of mortality were weak piglets and crushing (46 %), diarrhea (27 %), poor management knowledge (19 %), and malnutrition (16 %). Agricultural training and government incentives will facilitate improved productivity in smallholder pig farming.     

Characterization of smallholder pig production system: productive and reproductive performances of local and crossbred pigs in Sikkim Himalayan region

The present study was conducted to know the smallholder pig production system in tribal areas of Sikkim State, India. Two hundred tribal farmers were selected randomly from the North and East District of the state. Information on socio-economic characteristics of farmers (gender, occupation, educational status, and farming experience), management practices, disease prevalence, and economics in pig production was collected. The study recorded the mean land holding as 1.2?±?0.8 ha, and the number of pigs per farm was 5.0?±?0.28. Pigs were mainly kept as a source of income, and 70 % of farmers reared crossbreed pigs. Ninety percent (90 %) of respondents practiced the intensive system of management whereby kitchen wastes along with cooked mixture comprising maize bhusa, mustard oil cake, pseudostem of banana, tuber, stem, and plant leaves were used to feed their animals. About 40.5 % of farmers procured their breeding stock from government farms that had good records and utilized veterinary services like timely vaccination and deworming. The diseases prevalent in the study area were swine fever, diarrhea, helminthoses, sarcoptic mange, pneumonia, etc. The litter sizes at birth (local, 4.3?±?0.45; crossbreed, 7.2?±?0.33), at weaning (local, 2.79?±?0.24; crossbreed, 6.1?±?0.21), and age at first farrowing (local, 365.39?±?7.96 days; crossbreed, 337.24?±?8.79 days) were recorded. Production costs of meat extracted from local and crossbred pigs were 1.08 $/kg and 0.86 $/kg, respectively.     

Characterization of broiler poultry production system in Rwanda

A study was conducted on 37 randomly selected broiler poultry farmers in Rwanda to characterize the production system using pre-tested semi-structured questionnaires. The data were processed in SPSS and presented as means, percentages and ranges in tables and text. All respondents kept Cobb breed and young stock was mainly (73 %) imported from abroad. The majority of respondents were males (68 %) and most farmers had attended only primary level of education (40.5 %). Most of the farms were in the peri-urban (48.6 %) and urban (37.8 %) areas and hired male youth (62.2 %) mainly aged 19–35 years. The majority of respondents (68 %) kept less than 500 birds per batch. Recordkeeping was well practiced (91.9 %) and (62.6 %) had permanent poultry houses and all farmers used deep litter system. Purchased feedstuffs were reportedly (92 %) mixed at farm level as the main feed resource. Maize bran was reported (97.06 %) the main, basal feedstuff. The mortality rates of chick and growers were 12.3 and 9.4 %, respectively. The slaughter age was reportedly 60 days with an average dressing percentage of 75.67 %. The main challenges reported were scarcity and unaffordability of quality feeds (59.5 %), lack of market access (45 %) and lack of credit (21 %). The farmers had various views on improving broiler production in Rwanda ranging from establishing feed processing industries 62.2 %, improving marketing facilities 35.1 %, increasing availability of day-old chick and access credit 27 %, to intensification of farmer training 16.2 %.     

Opportunities for conservation and utilisation of local pig breeds in low-input production systems in Zimbabwe and South Africa

Purpose and methods

In situ conservation of pig genetic resources requires understanding of the farming systems under which the pigs are kept. The objective of the study was to characterise smallholder pig production systems where indigenous pigs are kept in order to assess opportunities for in situ conservation of these pigs. Factors influencing pig herd sizes, ranking of pigs in smallholder production systems, breeds and breed preferences, pig ownership patterns, traits preferred by farmers and constraints to production were investigated in a survey involving 199 farmers from Chirimhanzu District of Zimbabwe, Vhembe, Alfred Nzo and O. R. Tambo Districts of South Africa.

Results

Income was the major factor influencing most pig production related parameters. Most pigs (69.67 %) were owned by women, with most of the women falling into the very low income group. Farmers kept pigs for several reasons that were common across geographical zones and income groups. The odds of a farmer ranking pigs first in the production system depended on the absence of other livestock (P?<?0.05). Farmers in the higher income group tended to mention poor feed resources and access to information as constraints (P?<?0.05) compared to the very low income group. There was preference heterogeneity in the breeds kept and the reasons for breed choice across the income groups and geographical zones. Fewer farmers in the very low income group (42.62 %) recognised the need to conserve local pigs compared to the low income group (80.49 %), the medium income group (50.00 %) and the high income group (100.00 %; χ ²?=?19.14; P?<?0.001).

Conclusions

It was concluded that farmers see value in local pigs and are willing to conserve them. In situ conservation programmes are possible and these should recognise the role of poor women in conserving and enhancing indigenous pig genetic resources.     

Poultry production and constraints in Eastern Province of Rwanda: case study of Rukomo sector,Nyagatare district

A study was conducted in Rukomo sector, Nyagatare district, to determine the status of poultry production. A structured questionnaire was used to collect data from 100 poultry farmers randomly as 20 farmers from each of the five cells. Data were analyzed using SPSS version 16 and presented in chart and tables. The majority of the farmers (84%) reared their poultry in free range system while 10% practiced semi-intensive and only 6% did intensive production. Only 12% of the respondents kept exotic poultry breeds. The breeding stock were mostly obtained from local markets (63%) and the average flock size was about 1–10 birds per homestead (70%). The confinement of poultry at night was either in the main domestic house (33%), in kitchen (32%), or in separate poultry house (35%). Flock records were rare and kept by only 9% of respondents. Poultry products were reportedly at high demand by 87% of respondents and 89% farmers reported profit from their enterprises. Lack of veterinary and financial assistance was reported by 72% of respondents. Newcastle disease (57%) was the main health constraint followed by ectoparasites and internal worms. Many farmers (50%) were in dire need of veterinary assistance and financial support to improve their poultry enterprises. Poor management practices were reported to be one of the crucial factors leading to poor production. Lack of quality feeds (38%) and feeding of poultry, credit (20%), and poor market accessibility (19%) were the main challenges reported.     

Questionnaire survey on urban and peri-urban livestock farming practices and disease control in Kisumu municipality, Kenya

To characterise the urban livestock keeping practices and constraints in Kisumu municipality, Kenya, a questionnaire survey was carried out. Thirty-four contact farmers were interviewed on general farm characteristics and production constraints. The farming activities were categorised as either livestock only (41%), or mixed crops and livestock (59%). The surveyed farmers kept mainly cattle (100%), chickens (82%) and goats (74%). Most (94%) of the farmers had kept livestock for prolonged periods mainly for income generation (97%) and domestic consumption (59%). These data show that livestock keeping was popular and could be harnessed to increase food security, although the farmers kept mainly low-producing indigenous cattle (98%) which were grazed on unutilised land. The main production constraints mentioned by farmers included diseases (100%), poor fertility (68%) and lack of feed (56%). The diseases varied with species of ruminants and included lumpy skin disease (71%), diarrhoea (65%) and helminthosis (62%). The source of advice on management and treatment of the livestock was almost equally from private and government veterinary personnel. To improve livestock productivity, it is recommended that key stakeholders address the constraints mentioned in this study and in particular that the occurrence of diseases should be investigated with a view to developing sustainable control strategies.     

Farmers’ perceptions of goat kid mortality under communal farming in Eastern Cape,South Africa

Rearing of goats under communal farming conditions is characterised by high kid mortality and low weaning percentages. A survey was conducted to determine farmers’ perceptions on the causes of kid mortality during summer under the communal farming system in Nkonkobe Local Municipality in the Eastern Cape, South Africa. This was done by administering questionnaires to a total of 162 respondents in 14 villages around Nkonkobe Local Municipality. The study showed that majority of farmers (75 %) keep flock sizes of less than 10 goats and kids, and this indicates that goat production in Nkonkobe Local Municipality is suppressed. According to the farmers, diseases (89 %), endo-parasites (72 %) and ecto-parasites (68 %) were perceived as the major causes of kid mortality. Other causes reported include starvation (15 %), extreme weather conditions (28 %), abortion (7 %), theft (35 %), diarrhoea (43 %), accidents (10 %) and wounds (9 %). The low number of goats could be attributed to high mortalities. It was also found that all causes reported by farmers played a role in high kid mortality in Nkonkobe Local Municipality. However, the causes which require more emphasis to formulate extension support were tick-borne diseases and parasites. This study provided baseline information on possible causes of kid mortalities in Nkonkobe Local Municipality. There is, however, a need to conduct further studies to determine actual causes of high kid mortalities so as to develop preventive strategies that would minimize kid mortality for good economic returns.     

Ethno-veterinary control of bovine dermatophilosis and ticks in Zhombe, Njelele and Shamrock resettlement in Zimbabwe

A structured questionnaire survey was conducted to determine the ethno-veterinary practices and other control methods used by smallholder farmers for the management of bovine dermatophilosis and ticks. A total of 153 farmers were interviewed from Njelele, Zhombe communal and Shamrock resettlement areas. Crop production contributed most to livelihoods (83.2 %) while livestock contributed 9.0 %. Over 90 % of the respondents had attended school up to primary level, with 11.4 % undergoing animal health and husbandry training. Treatment of livestock diseases was practised by 96 % of the farmers, and 49.7 % of these farmers used ethno-veterinary medicines. Across the study sites, dermatophilosis was controlled using the following plants: Cissus quadrangularis (59.7 %), Catunaregam spinosa (10.5 %), Pterocarpus angolensis (10.5 %), Kalanchoe lanceolata (5.3 %), Aloe chabaudii (3.5 %), Cassia abbreviata (1.8 %), Dichrostachys cinerea (1.8 %), Urginea sanguinea (1.8 %), Ximenia caffra (1.8 %) and a plant locally called umfanawembila (1.8 %). Carica papaya and two plants, locally called mugimbura and umdungudungu, were used for tick control, and these were reported once from Njelele communal. Other control methods, besides plants or conventional drugs, were used by 28 % of the farmers for the treatment of dermatophilosis and ticks. Some farmers (14.4 %) claimed that ethno-veterinary medicines performed better than conventional drugs. The study revealed that farmers used ethno-veterinary medical practices for the treatment of dermatophilosis but rarely for tick control.     

Characteristics of the smallholder free-range pig production system in western Kenya

Free-range pig farming is common amongst the small-scale farmers in western Kenya. In order to determine the characteristics of this type of production system, a cross-sectional questionnaire survey on farm characteristics and management was collected from 182 farmers in Busia District. The mean farm size was one acre, while the mean number of pigs per farm was 3.6. Pigs were mainly kept as a source of income (98%) and majority were of cross breed variety (64%). The production systems included farrow to weaner (12%), porker to finisher (36%), and mixed (46%). Sixty five percent (65%) of the pigs were tethered and housing was not provided in 61% of the farms. Most of the feeds were sourced locally. Lack of castration and delayed weaning of pigs was observed on 49% and 30% of the farms, respectively. The main production constraints included pig diseases (81%) and high cost or lack of feed (81%). Haematopinus suis infestations and worm infections were considered to be the most important diseases by 71% and 55% of the farmers, respectively. Farmers had moderate knowledge on parasitic disease diagnosis with 31% and 62% not having a history of either deworming or spraying pigs with acaricides, respectively. Marketing constraints were common amongst the farmers and included poor prices and inadequate market information. In conclusion, the production system was characterized as low-input with an income objective. Future research and development approaches should focus on the integration of free-range farmers into the country’s market chains through access to extension services.     

Current status of cattle production system in Nyagatare District-Rwanda

A study was conducted to characterize the cattle production systems in Nyagatare District, Eastern Province of Rwanda using pre-tested questionnaires, interviews with key informants as well as focus group discussions in a period of 2 months. The respondents were selected by multi-stage sampling at sector and cell levels. Based on the procedure of Krejcie and Morgan (Educational and Psychological Measurement 30:607–610, 1970) to determine the overall sample size, the result indicated that the majority (98.3%) of farms were privately owned by large families of five to seven members, and most farmers (53.9%) had only primary education. Most respondents (52.6%) were in the age bracket of 41–50 years and were mainly (48.3%) located within 3 km from trading centers. The farm size averaged 6.5 ± 0.8 ha and most farms (64.7%) were fenced except in Rukomo Sector (50%) where zero grazing prevailed. Natural pastures (savanna grass land) were the main feed resource; tethering (9%) and communal grazing had diminished. Napier grass was the main planted forage (93.2%), followed by Chloris guyana (3.1%) and Brachiara (1.2%). Leguminous forages were rarely (2.5%) reported. Vita-mineral and salt block supplements, hay, and crop residues were the predominant supplementary feed stuffs used except in Karangazi and Rwemiyaga Sectors where only vita-mineral block predominated. However, maize and rice brans were reported to be the main feed stuffs used in supplementary feeding of lactating cows. Most farmers (89.7%) reported shortage of water as most of the farmers trekked their cattle to the nearest valley dams (59.2%), rivers (21.1%), and a few 6% had water on farms. Indigenous cattle were predominant (67.03%) followed by cross-breeds (28.37%) and exotics (4.6%) while all farmers kept small ruminants. Natural breeding predominated (74.9%) and most farms (60.6%) had animal houses most of which were temporary (52.8%). The reported mean age at first calving (AFC) was highest (40.2 ± .33) for Ankole and the lowest (29.1 ± .50) months for exotic cattle. Calving interval was shorter in local breeds than 65.7 ± 3.0 in exotic. The mean dairy milk yield was lowest for Ankole cattle 2.4 ± .08 as compared to the exotics (10.42 ± .36) and their crosses (7.2 ± .34). The main challenges were diseases, shortage of water, feeds, and inadequate extension services. Same observation was reported by Okello (African Journal of Range and Forage Science 22(3), 2005) in Uganda.     

Practices of traditional beef farmers in their production and marketing of cattle in Zambia

Understanding the practices of traditional cattle farmers in developing countries is an important factor in the development of appropriate, pro-poor disease control policies, and in formulating regional-specific production incentives that can improve productivity. This paper describes the production, husbandry practices, economics, and constraints of traditional cattle farming in Zambia. A cross-sectional study design was used to obtain data from traditional cattle farmers (n = 699) using a structured questionnaire. Data analyses were carried out using SPSS and STATA statistical packages. The results revealed that the majority [65% (95% CI: 59.3–71.1)] of farmers practised a transhumant cattle herding system under communal grazing. In these transhumant herding systems, animal husbandry and management systems were found to be of poor quality, in terms of supplementary feeding, vaccination coverage, deworming, uptake of veterinary services, usage of artificial insemination, and dip tanks all being low or absent. East Coast Fever was the most common disease, affecting 60% (95% CI: 56.4–63.7) of farmers. Cattle sales were low, as farmers only sold a median of two cattle per household per year. Crop farming was found to be the main source of farm income (47%) in agro-pastoralist communities, followed by cattle farming (28%) and other sources (25%). The median cost of production in the surveyed provinces was reported at US$316, while that of revenue from cattle and cattle products sales was estimated at US$885 per herd per year. This translates to an estimated gross margin of US$569, representing 64.3% of revenue.There is considerable diversity in disease distribution, animal husbandry practices, economics, and challenges in traditional cattle production in different locations of Zambia. Therefore, to improve the productivity of the traditional cattle sub-sector, policy makers and stakeholders in the beef value chain must develop fit-for-purpose policies and interventions that consider these variations.     

A comparison of two laboratory methods of maintaining field-collected Lymnaea tomentosa for the production of Fasciola hepatica metacercariae

Four replicates of 50 field-collected Lymnaea tomentosa were maintained in two laboratory culture systems and their efficiency and practicability for the production of Fasciola hepatica metacercariae were assessed. There was no significant difference in the total number of metacercariae produced (56 552 from 64 snails in the closed container system and 54 073 from 82 snails in the shallow aquarium system).There was no significant difference between culture systems as assessed by snail survival, the number of infected snails or the number of infected snails harvested for the recovery of metacercariae. Within both systems there was a significant effect of snail size on the number of metacercariae produced. Optimum survival and production of metacercariae was achieved in young adult snails of 5–8 mm shell length at the time of infection.The collection of L. tomentosa from the field habitat and their maintenance in either culture system was shown to be a practical alternative to the breeding of laboratory adapted strains of L. tomentosa for the regular production of large numbers of F. hepatica metacercariae.     

Viability of smallholder dairying in Wedza, Zimbabwe

Viability differences in smallholder dairy farming are a result of differences in access to markets and services. It is hypothesized that innovations that improve productivity and market linkages also improve returns and viability. The viability of smallholder dairying in Wedza was characterised by interviewing 52 households using semi-structured questionnaires. Information on demographics, production, marketing, livestock numbers, assets and constraints was obtained. Farmers were resource-constrained with differences in access to resources. The highly resourced farmers had higher milk output and numbers of livestock. Almost 40 % of the households were female-headed, and these dominated the poor category. Household sizes ranged from 4 to 13 persons. Milk off-take was low (3.7?±?0.53 l/cow/day), due to various constraints. Only rich farmers had viable enterprises in purely financial terms. Per litre cost of milk was more than selling price (US$0.96) for most farmers except the relatively rich. Operating ratios were 1.7, 0.6, 1.4 and 1.1 for the poor, rich, sub-centre and milk collection centre farmers, respectively. This means incomes from the dairy activities did not cover costs. Sensitivity analysis indicated that increases in total variable costs and labour reduced returns. Milk production and viability were influenced by access to resources and markets.     

Management practices followed for draught cattle in the southern part of India

A study was conducted to determine the management practices followed by the farmers for draught cattle in Tamil Nadu state, India. Methods of procurement of animals, use of female animals, breeds preferred, housing, health, disposal of animals, feeding, shoeing, purchase of animal-drawn implements and their maintenance were all assessed with 210 farmers from seven districts across different agro-climatic zones in Tamil Nadu. The results revealed that 86 % of the respondents purchased the draught cattle from the livestock markets, most were bullocks but 20 small farmers and 5 medium farmers used female animals for ploughing. Among the indigenous breeds, Kangeyam (33 %) and Hallikar (30 %) breeds were the most popular for work. Most farmers (69 %) provided a mixed type of housing (provision of housing only during the night time and the rainy season) for their draught cattle. The major health problem reported by 63 % of respondents was pyrexia. Almost all farmers sold their animals at the age of 8–10 years. The feeding practices for draught cattle were poor especially with the small farmers. The cattle were fed with mainly paddy straw and rice bran. Oilcakes and cotton seeds were given to the animals which work throughout the year mainly for ploughing and carting. The draught cattle were first shod at around 2.5 years of age. The majority of the farmers (71 %) used the traditional animal-drawn implements made by local artisans, and the farmers were not aware of the new implements to reduce the drudgery of work cattle, designed by the Agricultural Machinery Research Centre and Agricultural Engineering Departments located in India.     

Guinea fowl (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Numidia meleagris</Emphasis>) production by small-holder farmers in Zimbabwe

Guinea fowls are a source of high-value meat and eggs, and the birds are more disease resistant than other types of birds. A survey was conducted in ward 23, Chipinge district, Zimbabwe, to characterise guinea fowl management practices and to identify constraints and potential opportunities for increased guinea fowl productivity. Purposive sampling was used to select 84 out of possible 252 guinea fowl owners. Data were collected by direct observation on guinea fowl varieties, feeding strategies and housing facilities. A semi-structured questionnaire was used to collect data on farmer experiences, perceptions and common challenges encountered. A chi-squared test was conducted using the IBM SPSS Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 21. The study revealed that famers keep guinea fowls under free-range management. The average production indices were flock size 18 ± 12, egg production 89 ± 50, hatchability 63.8% and keet survival rate of 75%. Approximately 42.9% of the farmers provide supplementary feed albeit not systematically. There was a significant association between provision of supplementary feed and keet survival rate (χ ² = 21.600, df = 2, P < 0.016) as well as provision of housing and flock size (χ ² = 38.508, df = 3, P < 0.018). The housing provided was substandard. Major challenges faced by farmers were predation, low hatchability and lack of access to profitable markets. The provision of supplements and better housing for birds could improve guinea fowl productivity.     

Smallholder dairy production in Northern Malawi: production practices and constraints

Milk production in Malawi is still unsatisfactory despite efforts by different stakeholders to boost the dairy sector. To investigate the roots of the problem, a survey on the current production practices and constraints on smallholder dairy farming was conducted in the Northern Region of the country. A total of 210 farmers were interviewed. The results revealed that farmers had small herd sizes in the region with an average of 2.2 ± 0.6 cattle per farmer. Average herd size was larger in male-managed farms than in female-managed farms (2.6 ± 2.8 vs. 1.8 ± 1.3), farmers with more than 5 years of dairy farming experience had larger herds than those with less experience (2.6 ± 2.8 vs. 1.9 ± 1. 2) and farmers who grazed their animals tended to have larger herds than those that stall-fed their animals (4.4 ± 5.1 vs. 1.9 ± 1.3). Average milk production was 8.2 ± 6.5 l per cow per day. Higher average daily milk production was observed in farmers with above primary school education (10.3 ± 8.3 vs. 7.7 ± 5.6), those with dairy farming as main activity (9.3 ± 6.6 vs. 6. 5 ± 6.1) and farmers with more than 2 years of experience in dairy farming (9.3 ± 6.3 vs. 6.1 ± 6.4). Unreliable supply of improved animal genetics, poor animal health, feed shortage and poor prices for milk were considered to be the most important constraints to smallholder dairy farming in descending order.     

Productivity in different cattle production systems in Kenya

Cattle are kept as an important source of livelihood in many Kenyan farming households whilst also having cultural and social value. A review was undertaken to estimate productivity in the three main Kenyan cattle production systems: small-scale dairy and meat; small-scale dairy; and large-scale dairy and meat. Data on production parameters were collected through a systematic literature search of electronic databases for peer reviewed and grey literature. The parameters included were reproductive rates, mortality rates and yields. Prices for livestock and livestock products were estimated from markets. The data were used to estimate net output from cattle using the Livestock Productivity Efficiency Calculator (LPEC), a deterministic steady state model which measures productivity as net output per megajoule (MJ) of metabolisable energy (ME). The estimated net outputs per livestock unit year^?1 were USD 146.6, USD 215.1 and USD 84.8 in the large-scale dairy and meat, small-scale dairy and meat and small-scale dairy systems, respectively. Milk production contributed significantly to net output in all systems and was 91.8 % of total output in small-scale dairy. Cattle sales had the highest contribution to net output in large-scale dairy and meat system (45.1 %). Sensitivity analysis indicated that output was most affected by milk yield, age and weight at maturity and parturition rate. The productivity differences between the production systems call for more detailed research on the constraints to the production systems such as diseases, and to describe the benefits that farmers and society would obtain from disease control and improved management.