Element Concentrations in Scots Pine Needles on Radial Transects Across a Subarctic Area

Concentrations of aluminium (Al), arsenic (As), calcium (Ca), cadmium (Cd), chlorine (Cl), chromium (Cr), copper (Cu), iron (Fe), potassium (K), magnesium (Mg), manganese (Mn), nickel (Ni), phosphorus (P), lead (Pb), sulphur (S), silicon (Si) and zinc (Zn) were measured by X-ray fluorescence spectrometry (XRF) in Scots pine needles collected from transects across Finnish Lapland and the Kola Peninsula in Russia. Ni, Cu, Fe, P and S concentrations were significantly higher in the needles collected in the vicinity of the smelters in Monchegorsk, whereas Mn and Zn decreased towards Monchegorsk. No distinct increase of S or decrease of Mn and Zn concentrations in the needles were observed when approaching Nikel. Foliar S concentrations were higher in C needles than in C+1 needles, even in plots close to the smelters. The effect of the emissions from the smelters was clearly seen in the needle chemistry up to 50 km away from smelters and was still perceivable over 100 km away.     

Soil geochemistry in relation to water chemistry and sensitivity to acid deposition in Finnish Lapland

Ecosystems in Finnish Lapland are threatened by heavy metal pollution and acid deposition derived from emissions of Cu-Ni smelters in Kola Peninsula and to varying extent to pollution from southern Fennoscandian and Central European sources. Extensive chemical analyses of small lake waters collected in Finnish Lapland have demonstrated that a significant number of lakes are acidified (ANC < 0μcq/l) or their buffering capacity is critical (ANC = 0–50μe/l). The relative abundance of mafic, ultramafic and carbonate rock components in the catchment were the chief factors controlling ANC and the main base cation (Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺) concentrations of lake waters. Both humic and clearwater lakes with low buffering capacity (ANC < 50μeq/l) were mainly located in the catchment areas identified as sensitive to acidification on the basis of low content of base cations (Ca²⁺ +Mg²⁺ +K⁺ < 500 meq/kg) in till. The ratio of the catchment area to the lake area was distinctly smaller for acidic lakes than for the well-buffered lakes, indicating the importance of catchment processes in determining the ANC and main base cations. The high sulphur concentrations (median 60μeq/1) of acidic lakes in northeastern Lapland, near the Finnish-Norwegian border, were strongly correlated with the highest deposition of sulphur derived from smelters of Kola Peninsula. The anomalously high concentrations of sulphur of well-buffered lakes in the western part of Lapland were due to sulphide minerals of soil and bedrock. The acidity of humic lakes in southern Lapland was in large part due to the organic acidity derived from peatlands.     

Effect of industrial emissions on membrane permeability of epiphytic lichens in Northern Finland and the Kola Peninsula industrial areas

The impact of air pollution on membrane permeability of the epiphytic lichens Hypogymnia physodes and Bryoria fuscescens was studied in northern Finland and the Kola Peninsula to assess the effects of the Kola industrial emissions. The conductivity and quantity of K⁺ in leachates of the lichens were determined both as absolute and relative leakage. The K⁺ leakage from the lichens was the most sensitive indicator of membrane disturbance. Positive relationships between K⁺ leakage and decreasing distance from pollution sources and modelled atmospheric SO₂ concentrations were found and the K⁺ leakage and Cu and Ni concentrations of Scots pine bark were also highly correlated. The relative conductivity of leachates was inversely related to distance from sources, while the absolute conductivity of leachates from lichens was positively correlated with bark S. The ion leakage was higher in fruticose Bryoria fuscescens than in foliose Hypogymnia physodes, but the overall response to pollution was similar in both species. The methods used were able to identify areas of disturbed membrane function around the Kola industrial areas and local point sources in northern Finland. However, the majority of the studied sites in Finnish Lapland can be regarded as undisturbed background areas with respect to these sensitive lichens.     

Acid deposition from the Russian Kola Peninsula: Are sensitive fish populations in north-eastern Finnish Lapland affected?

Sulphur emissions from Russian Kola Peninsula smelters are known to cause surface water acidification in the border areas between Norway and Russia. The sulphur deposition is also high in the eastern part of Finnish Lapland. In 1990, a monitoring programme was started to survey the effects of acid deposition on sensitive fish populations in north-eastern Finnish Lapland. Altogether 103 sites in three areas were electrofished and autumn water samples were taken. Besides the brown trout (Salmo trutta), special attention was paid to the occurrence of minnow (Phoxinus phoxinus) since it is a common species in small waters and is highly sensitive to acidification. During the first three years of monitoring no signs of acidification were recorded. The alkalinity values of brooks generally exceeded 0.1 mmol/1. Brown trout, minnow and burbot (Lota lota) were caught frequently in the study sites. Later the study was focused on the uninhabited Vätsäri area which is receiving the highest sulphur deposition in Finnish Lapland. The alkalinity values of the sampled brooks were in most cases below 0.05 mmol/1, indicating a decreased buffer capacity. However, the electrofishing of the brooks showed no acid-induced damage. The lowest alkalinity values were detected from a group of small upland ponds. In four such ponds the alkalinity was zero or negative. No minnows were caught from these four ponds apart from one, where the minnows were exceptionally large. The results show that the waters near the eastern border of northern Finnish Lapland are threatened by acidification. No damage to fish populations subject to fishing was observed. The absence of minnows in some small waters is possibly the first sign of acid-induced fish population damage.     

GIS Analysis of Surface Water Chemistry Susceptibility and Response to Industrial Air Pollution in the Kola Peninsula,Northern Russia

The Kola Peninsula (Figure 1) is the most industrially developed and urbanized region in the Russian North. The main pollution sources are the large smelters Severonickel and Pechenganickel, which are responsible for > 80 % of SO2 emission and nearly 100 % of the Ni and Cu emission in the region. The heterogeneous structure of the hydrologic network and geochemistry across the region cause natural variability in water chemistry. Due to moist and cool climate, large territories on the Kola are sensitive to acid precipitation, but around the smelters, geological peculiarities, erosion and alkaline dust emissions increase buffering capacity of waters to acidification. Lake and river monitoring implemented from 1989-1993 by the laboratory of water ecosystems, Institute of Northern Ecology Problems was a basis for GIS-analysis (ARC/VIEW-2.1) of the major constituents of water chemistry attributed to anthropogenic load in the region. After correction for sea salt, acid-neutralizing capacity (ANC) of waters was calculated. The highest concentrations of anthropogenic non-sea sulfates were confined to the districts with high cation concentrations (Na+ + K+ + Ca2+ + Mg2+) that reduced negative effects. The most vulnerable regions were found in the northern tundra and high mountain tundra.     

Uptake of nutrients and heavy metals by pine trees under atmospheric pollution

Pollution-induced changes in concentrations of elements in pine needles, branches, stem bark, and wood were investigated on 12 plots along the pollution gradient at distances of 5 to 77 km from the Pechenganikel copper-nickel smelter on the Kola Peninsula (northwestern Russia), the largest emitter of sulfur and heavy metals in northern Europe. Close to the pollution source, concentrations of S, Ni, Cu, Pb, and Cd in all the pine compartments were higher as compared to their background levels, while the Zn concentrations were lower. The concentrations of Ni and Cd—the main metals emitted—were the highest in all the pine compartments. Age-related variations in the needle composition were comparable to those at the background plots. Branches and, especially, stem bark, were richer in heavy metals than other tissues and, in addition to wood, contributed significantly to the accumulation of metals in the biomass of the polluted pine forests. Changes in the chemical composition of plant tissues could be explained by changes in element concentrations in the soils and by direct element uptake from the air, as well as by the antagonistic relationships between the elements.     

Ecogeochemical Investigation: Stream Water Quality as an Indicator of Pollution in the Border Areas of Finland, Norway and Russia

The Geological Surveys of Finland and Norway, and the Central Kola Expedition, Russia, carried out an environmental geochemical mapping project, including investigation of stream water quality. The project was carried out in 1992–1993 in the border areas of Finland, Norway and Russia, covering an area of 12 000 km², to determine the impacts of smelting industries at Nikel and Zapoljarnij. Stream water was one of eight different indicators providing an estimation of the degree and distribution of contamination in the study area. Contamination of surface water was assessed by analyses of 44 samples, 41 variables were measured on each sample. Indicators of human activities in surface waters are NO₃, K, electrical conductivity (EC), SO₄, Na, Cl and acidification indicated by alkalinity and pH. On the coast Na and Cl contents are also affected by marine salts. The results show considerably higher contents of K, Ca, Mg, SO₄, Na, heavy metals and EC in the samples close to Nikel and Zapoljarnij smelters than those sites more distant from the polluting sources. Especially chemical effects of high emissions of Ni, Cu and SO₂ on stream water quality from Nikel and Zapoljarnij smelters are clearly seen near the sources of emissions.     

Relation between sulphur concentrations in the Scots pine needles and the air in northernmost Europe

The SO₂ emissions from the Kola Peninsula in Arctic Russia (totalling around 600 Gg(SO₂) yr^–1 at the beginning of the 1990s) produce an atmospheric SO₂ concentration gradient to the northernmost Europe. This gradient covers the range from >50 g m^–3 in the vicinity of the sources to 1 g m^–3 in Finnish Lapland. In the present study, the measured sulphur concentrations in Scots pine needles were compared with the estimated distribution of atmospheric SO₂. The total sulphur concentrations in the needles ranged from 741 to 2017 mg kg^–1. Strongly elevated concentrations (> 1200 mg kg^–1) were found within 40 km from the smelters corresponding to an area where the annual mean atmospheric SO₂ concentration exceeded 10 g m^–3. The foliar sulphur concentrations (total, organic and inorganic) show a high correlation with the estimated mean SO₂ concentration distribution in the air. Consequently the foliar sulphur concentrations reflected the atmospheric sulphur load well. The data presented here show that uptake via stomata is an important deposition pathway also in the arctic conditions with a short growing season.     

The Applicability of Peat and Needle Analysis in Heacy Metal Deposition Surveys

Peat and needle samples were collected from an old Cu, Zn and Ni ore-prospecting experiment at Alkkia, SW Finland. The element rates applied were 100–400 kg ha^-1 for Ni and 100–1000 kg ha^-1 for Cu and Zn. The heavy metal toxicity of Scots pine stand was estimated primarily on the basis of stand mortality during 28 yr. The tolerance limit values were applied to pine stands growing along a Cu-Ni deposition gradient (0.9–10 km) at Harjavalta copper smelter, SW Finland. Very high heavy metal concentrations in the pine needles and strong accumulation in the surface humus and uppermost peat layers were found. A Cu concentration of 840, Ni 180 and Zn 220 mg kg^-1 in peat 0–10 cm, and a Cu concentration of 50, Ni 30 and Zn 175 mg kg^-1 in the current needles of the uppermost whorl are proposed as toxicity limits for peatland forests at Harjavalta. According to the heavy metal amounts in peat 0–20 cm, the toxicity area for Cu extended to a distance of 2.0 km, for Ni about 1.0 km and for Zn 0.4 km to the west of the emission point source.     

Erratum

OLGA RIGINA and ALEXANDER BAKLANOV: Trends in sulfur emission-induced effects in northern Europe. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution 105 (1–4): 331–342, 1998. Figure 2 was mistakenly put mirrored. The correct Figure 2 is printed below. SO₂ emission from the Severonickel (at Monchegorsk) and Pechenganickel (at Nickel and Zapolyarni) smelters and total for the Kola Peninsula (after the Murmansk Regional Committee of Nature Protection data). The correct legend for Figure 10 should read: Figure 10. Average annual SO² concentrations μg m^-3) at the monitoring stations Svanvik and Holmfoss in the Russian-Norwegian border area and SO₂ emission from the Pechenganickel smelter (kt yr^-1) for 1980–1995 (updated after Sivertsen et al., 1994).     

The use of moss,lichen and pine bark in the nationwide monitoring of atmospheric heavy metal deposition in Finland

Mosses, lichens and pine bark were compared as indicators of atmospheric heavy metal deposition in Finland. The samples were collected from the nationwide sampling network systematically covering the country as a whole. All three bioindicators showed a fairly similar result concerning heavy metal deposition. The major emission sources and the areas affected were reflected in the metal concentrations in the samples. However, there were differences between the accumulation of metals. The correlation between concentrations in mosses and lichens was generally higher than that between mosses and bark or lichens and bark. Concentrations in lichens were the highest and lichens reflected the regional differences in background areas as well as the local emission sources. The concentrations in the mosses were slightly lower than those in lichens and also the mosses pinpointed the emission sources and the extend of the areas polluted. Bark had the lowest concentrations and bark did not generally reveal regional differences as well as mosses and lichens. In spite of the differences, all three bioindicators proved to be suitable for monitoring atmospheric heavy metal deposition.     

Diatom Inferred Acidity History Of 32 Lakes On The Kola Peninsula,Russia

The Kola Peninsula is characterised by vast environmental contrasts. Large areas are almost in pristine condition. However, mining and associated industrial activity generate one of the largest sources of heavy metal and sulphur emissions in the world and create `technogenic wastelands' around smelters. Due to the lack of monitoring data, insufficient knowledge is available regarding the acidification history of lakes on the peninsula. In this study, palaeolimnological techniques were used to reveal the pre-industrial pH status of 32 small lakes in order to evaluate the role of human impacts on freshwater ecosystems. Diatom-inferred pH reconstructions demonstrated that for 22 (68.75%) of the lakes, the pH was below 6.5 and in eight (25%) below 6.0 during the pre-industrial period; signs of recent acidification could be detected only in seven lakes of which five are located relatively close to current pollution sources. Furthermore, no substantial changes between the pre-industrial and modern species richness and composition were observed, indicating relatively stable environmental conditions. Most of the lakes seem to have undergone long-term acidification and are mainly affected by natural acidifying factors (e.g., vegetation, bedrock, climate, sea salt). The effect of anthropogenic emissions seems to be surprisingly geographically restricted and controlled mainly by the surrounding topography and prevailing winds. However, although many lakes seem to be in relatively pristine condition, only a significant reduction in heavy metal and sulphur emissions will prevent the lakes from acidifying in the future.     

Snowpack quality as an indicator of air pollution in Finnish Lapland and the Kola Peninsula,NW Russia

Bulk snow samples were collected from the snowpack in open areas along two sampling lines running to the west from the Cu-Ni smelters at Nikel and Monchegorsk, NW Russia, during 1991–1993. The aim of the study was to estimate the area affected by sulphur and heavy metal deposition from the smelters. Snowpack quality was used as an indicator of deposition during winter time. The total sulphur, copper and nickel concentrations in the snowpack decreased significantly (p<0.001) with=" increasing=" distance=" from=" the=" smelters=" along=" the=" sampling=" line=" running=" directly=" to=" the=" west=" from=" monchegorsk.=" the=" deposition=" pattern=" was=" similar=" each=" winter=" during=" 1991–1993.=" the=" ph=" values=" did=" not=" correlate=" with=" the=" corresponding=" sulphur=" concentrations,=" and=" there=" was=" no=" decreasing=" ph=" gradient=" in=" the=" snowpack=" on=" moving=" towards=" monchegorsk.=" the=" effects=" of=" sulphur=" emissions=" from=" monchegorsk=" on=" snowpack=" chemistry=" were=" not=" detectable=" on=" the=" finnish=" side=" of=" the=" border.=" the=" 3-year=" mean=" of=" the=" total=" sulphur=" concentration=" was=" 0.27=" mg/kg,=" and=" of=" the=" ph=" values=" 4.92,=" along=" the=" sampling=" line=" running=" to=" the=" west=" of=" monchegorsk.=" the=" total=" sulphur=" concentrations=" near=" the=" smelters=">< 20=" km)=" varied=" between=" 0.37=" and=" 0.95=" mg/kg.=" the=" effect=" of=" the=" cu-ni=" smelters=" at=" nikel=" on=" snowpack=" quality=" was=" not=" detectable=" in=" northern=" finnish=" lapland.=" the=" 3-year=" mean=" for=" total=" sulphur=" was=" 0.20=" mg/kg=" and=" for=" ph=" 4.96=" along=" the=" sampling=" line=" running=" to=" the=" west=" of=">     

The effects of the emissions of the Kostomuksha mining complex on the chemical composition of deposition and soil water in the surrounding pine forests

The Kostomuksha mining complex in Russian Karelia is a major emission point source surrounded by large forest areas near the Finnish border. The sulphur dioxide emissions of the complex are almost 60 000 tonnes and dust emissions about 5 000 tonnes a year. Research into the effects of emissions on the surrounding forests were started in a Finnish-Russian co-operation project in 1992. Deposition measurements during the two first years indicate that the effects of the emissions extend about 30 km to the west of the complex. The annual sulphur deposition near the mining complex has been about 300 mg/m² in bulk precipitation and about 500 mg/m² in throughfall. Sulphur emissions sometimes extend the eastern parts of Finland, but there the deposition is clearly smaller than near to the mining complex. The high calcium emissions neutralize the acidifying effect of sulphur near to the mine and smelter. The iron concentration in precipitation also increased near the complex. Sulphur and calcium decreased in percolation water on moving westwards.     

Critical loads of acid deposition for forest ecosystems in the Kola Peninsula

We assessed critical loads of acid deposition and their exceedance for soils in the Kola Peninsula using a simple balance method and mapped them within 1.0° × 0.5° longitude/latitude grid cells. Critical loads of acidity vary from 200 to 800 mol_c/ha/y with the type of soil, parent rock, vegetation and climatic conditions. The critical deposition values are dominated by S contribution. Present sulphur depositions are higher than critical values in the large part of the Kola Peninsula (about 40% of total area). The greatest excess (800–1200 mol_c/ha/y) occur in north-western and western parts, especially in surroundings of nickel smelter in Nickel. Terrestrial ecosystems in the north-western Kola Peninsula are particularly susceptible to acid deposition damage due to relatively high soil sensitivity and heavy sulphur deposition.     

Macroinvertebrate-Inferred Stream-Water Acidity in North Eastern Finland Along a Sulphur Deposition Gradient

Recently developed weighted averaging (WA) models and widely used tolerance-limit approaches for inferring stream minimum pH from macroinvertebrates were tested in northeastern Finnish Lapland. Surface waters there are threatened by large sulphur emissions in the Russian Kola Peninsula. The modelled sulphur deposition increases from west to east approximately parallel to longitude. The effect of deposition on stream minimum pH was assessed by relating the macroinvertebrate-inferred stream minimum pH to longitude. In a test set of 17 streams, the minimum pH inferred from pooled invertebrate samples of three seasons by WA models showed a strong correlation (r = 0.67–0.72) with the minimum pH (range 6.3–7.1) observed during the spring snow-melt period. The relationship was slightly weaker (r = 0.59–0.69) using autumn samples only. The tolerance-limit approaches assigned the streams into the correct acidity class, but the inferred pH was not related to the observed minimum pH. This further demonstrates the superiority of the WA approach, especially in detecting early signs of acidification. The minimum pH inferred by WA from autumn assemblages of 37 streams along the deposition gradient showed a significant negative correlation with longitude, suggesting that the emissions from the Kola region contribute to low pH events in streams of northeastern Finnish Lapland. The results demonstrate the potential of bioassessment and monitoring using invertebrates in detecting impacts and changes that could remain unnoticed by conventional water quality-analyses.     

Risk assessment,spatial distribution,and source identification of heavy metal(loid)s in paddy soils along the Zijiang River basin,in Hunan Province,China

Purpose

This study aimed to reveal spatial distribution of As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Mn, Ni, Pb, Sb, V, and Zn in paddy soils in the Zijiang River basin and to evaluate its pollution status and potential ecological risks, and thus to provide basic information for rational utilization of paddy soils in the study area.

Materials and methods

The heavy metal(loid) concentrations in one hundred and thirty-five paddy soil samples (these samples were collected from the top 0–20 cm layer) were measured by inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectrometry. The spatial distribution characteristics of the heavy metal(loid)s were depicted by the Ordinary Kriging interpolation analysis. The contamination degree and potential ecological risks of the heavy metal(loid)s in paddy soils were assessed by Nemerow’s comprehensive index, geoaccumulation index, potential ecological risk factor, and potential ecological risk index. The potential sources of the heavy metal(loid)s were deduced by Pearson’s correlation analysis, hierarchical cluster analysis, and principal component analysis.

Results and discussion

The mean concentrations of the heavy metal(loid)s decreased in the order of Mn?>?V?≈?Zn?>?Cr?>?Ni?≈?Pb?>?Cu?≈?Sb?>?As?>?Cd. Except for Cd and Sb, the mean concentrations of As, Cr, Cu, Mn, Ni, Pb, V, and Zn were close to the background reference values. The concentration of Cd in 94.8% of samples exceeded the soil quality standard value (grade II, 5.5?<?pH?<?6.5, GB 15618–1995). According to the assessments of pollution and potential ecological risks for the heavy metal(loid)s, 45.2% and 46.7% of samples were severely polluted and moderately polluted, respectively. The potential sources analysis indicated that Cd, Sb, and Zn mainly originated from agricultural, mining, and smelting activities; As, Cu, and Pb mainly originated from agricultural activities, while coal combustion by-products was another major source of these heavy metal(loid)s in paddy soils near the thermal power plant in the southwest corner of the study area; Cr, V, Mn, and Ni mainly originated from natural source.

Conclusions

Cadmium and Sb are the main contaminants in paddy soils in the study area, and there are hot-spot pollution areas.

     

Heavy metal deposition in Scandinavia

Maps showing the regional differences in the atmospheric deposition of Pb, Cd, Hg, Cr, Ni, Cu, Zn, and Fe have been prepared for Finland, Norway and Sweden from data obtained by means of moss analysis, a method previously shown to be a sensitive and reliable tool in measuring heavy metal deposition. In all elements the minima were recorded in northern Norway, the maxima in south-central or south-western Sweden and southernmost Norway. The greatest regional differences were measured in Pb and Cd.     

The relationship between dissolved organic matter and percolation water chemistry in northern Finland

The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between dissolved organic matter and chemical constituents of percolation water collected at 5, 20 and 40 cm depths from 13 ionbalance sampling plots located along lines extending through Finnish Lapland from Cu-Ni smelters in the Kola Peninsula, Russia. All the monitoring plots have as uniform as possible stand and site characteristics. The plots were located in Scots pine stands on dry and dryish sites with genetic horizons characteristic of Fe-humus podsols. The soil type on most of the sites was sorted fine sand or sand. Significant positive correlations were found between dissolved organic matter (DOM) and total dissolved Al concentrations at 5 and 20 cm, but not at 40 cm. A significant negative correlation was found between DOM and pH at 5 cm, but not at 20 or 40 cm. The anion deficit was positively correlated with DOM at 5 cm in the percolation water. Organic matter thus plays an important role as an anioh in percolation water, and regulates water pH in the surface soil. A high proportion of dissolved Al was in the form of organic complexes. Total dissolved Al levels were well below the toxic limits for pine.     

Migration of nickel and copper in forest litters under the effect of simulated rainfall

The leaching of Ni and Cu from undisturbed forest litter layers under the impact of simulated natural and contaminated rainfalls was studied under laboratory conditions. Samples were collected in the vicinity of a copper-nickel smelter on the Kola Peninsula, northwestern Russia. Both Ni and Cu were significantly accumulated in the natural (uncontaminated) forest litter; the contaminated litter also uptook Cu and, to a lesser extent, Ni. The metals migrated through the forest litter as organometal complexes, mainly with acid-soluble components. In the contaminated forest litter, the migration of Ni was also affected by pH.