The role of climate variability and global warming in the dieback of Northern Hardwoods

The severity of dieback in Northern Hardwood Forests of Canada and the United States this century (1910–1990) was reconstructed from pathology records and compared to indices of extreme weather stresses in the region, and to changes in global temperatures and climatic variability over the same period. Thaw-freeze and root-freeze events in winter and early spring were key factors intriggering (and synchronizing) severe episodes of dieback. Once trees were injured by freezing, forest dieback correlated significantly with heat and drought stress. Freezing (but not drought) stresses in Northern Hardwoods correlated significantly (r = 0.70, p < 0.001) with increasing global mean annual temperatures and low values of the Pacific tropical Southern Oscillation Index. Major diebacks did not occur early in the century at a time of notable freezing stress. Prior to 1940, the Northern Hardwoods consisted of relatively young populations of trees regrowing following extensive cutting and forest burning in the late 19th century (1860–1890). It appears that forest maturation is the key factorpreconditioning trees to climatic injury, and dieback. A simple projection of climate and forest maturation ages suggested the recurrence of major dieback episodes on white/yellow birch, sugar maple and red spruce in the latter half of the 21st century (2045–2085).     

Forest decline and soil nutritional problems in pacific areas

Soil nutrient stresses have been determined to contribute to stand-level dieback in two Pacific forest biomes, the HawaiianMetrosideros rain forest and remnants of the eastern AustralianEucalyptus forest. In the Hawaiian dieback, low levels of N limit indigenous forest development early in primary succession on volcanic soils, while later in primary succession, stresses appear to be associated with soil aging, acidification, loss of cations, decreasing levels of P, increases in soluble Al, and, under poor drainage, sharp increases in soluble Fe. These nutrient limitations put a ceiling on stand development and growth and are considered as one of the three causes predisposing stands to dieback. In the rural or New England dieback of eastern Australia, indigenous eucalypts are adapted to ancient soils with very low levels of P, but pasture improvement with clover and fertilization with superphosphate has imposed different stresses on remnant eucalypts in pastures and nearby forest islands. After fertilization, the trees grow faster initially, but their foliage becomes highly nutritious for insects. Other factors also contribute to a build-up of insects as pests, which now threaten the remaining eucalypts. The rural dieback represents an example of how forests with low canopy species diversity, simplified structure, lack of successional species, and which are prone to dieback under natural conditions, can be destroyed by intensification of agricultural development. The paper closes with a summary of generic factors that were found to cause forest dieback under natural conditions and compares these to the anthropogenically superimposed stresses that led to aggravated tree and forest decline in the Australian rural or New England dieback. The suggestion is made that comparative dieback research at the global level will lead to an improved understanding of natural forest dynamics as an aid in interpreting the new stresses imposed on forests by human activity.     

Regional pattern of acid deposition and forest decline along a cross section through Europe

Acid deposition has caused acidification of waters and is implicated in forest dieback in Europe. Norway spruce is most widely affected. Air pollution is clearly related to this new dieback, but no single pollution factor (acid deposition, SO₂ or O₃) can explain the regional pattern. The symptoms of dieback fall into two general types —loss of brown and green needles, and needle yellowing. We propose a multiple-cause hypothesis involving the predisposing factor soil acidification which when combined with one or more inciting factor gives rise to either loss of brown and green needles (drought or frost) or needle yellowing (03 episodes). Forest dieback causes changes in water chemistry. Nitrate in streamwater may provide an early warning of incipient forest damage.     

Forest decline and soil nutritional problems in Pacific areas

Soil nutrient stresses have been determined to contribute to stand-level dieback in two Pacific forest biomes, the Hawaiian Metrosideros rain forest and remnants of the eastern Australian Eucalyptus forest. In the Hawaiian dieback, low levels of N limit indigenous forest development early in primary succession on volcanic soils, while later in primary succession, stresses appear to be associated with soil aging, acidification, loss of cations, decreasing levels of P, increases in soluble Al, and, under poor drainage, sharp increases in soluble Fe. These nutrient limitations put a ceiling on stand development and growth and are considered as one of the three causes predisposing stands to dieback. In the rural or New England dieback of eastern Australia, indigenous eucalypts are adapted to ancient soils with very low levels of P, but pasture improvement with clover and fertilization with superphosphate has imposed different stresses on remnant eucalypts in pastures and nearby forest islands. After fertilization, the trees grow faster initially, but their foliage becomes highly nutritious for insects. Other factors also contribute to a build-up of insects as pests, which now threaten the remaining eucalypts. The rural dieback represents an example of how forests with low canopy species diversity, simplified structure, lack of successional species, and which are prone to dieback under natural conditions, can be destroyed by intensification of agricultural development. The paper closes with a summary of generic factors that were found to cause forest dieback under natural conditions and compares these to the anthropogenically superimposed stresses that led to aggravated tree and forest decline in the Australian rural or New England dieback. The suggestion is made that comparative dieback research at the global level will lead to an improved understanding of natural forest dynamics as an aid in interpreting the new stresses. imposed on forests by human activity.     

Changes of lignin phenols and neutral sugars in different soil types of a high-elevation forest ecosystem 25 years after forest dieback

Long-term effects of forest disturbance 25 yr ago on lignin and non-cellulosic polysaccharide pools in an unmanaged high-elevation Norway spruce (Picea abies L. [Karst.]) forest were investigated by comparing three dieback sites with three adjacent control sites with non-infested spruce on identical soils. Samples were taken from the forest floor and the mineral soil; one Ah horizon sample per site was physically fractionated into density and particle size fractions. Additionally, changes in the above- and belowground input of lignin and non-cellulosic polysaccharides after forest dieback were quantified. Lignin and its degree of structural alteration in plant and soil samples were assessed by CuO oxidation and subsequent analysis of the lignin phenols. Non-cellulosic polysaccharides were determined after hydrolysis with trifluoroacetic acid (TFA), derivatisation of their neutral sugar monomers by reduction to alditols, and subsequent acetylation. The total plant-derived input of lignin and non-cellulosic polysaccharides to the soil was similar for the dieback and the control sites. The chemical composition of the input has changed considerably after forest dieback, as shown by significantly higher syringyl/vanillyl (S/V) ratios and significantly lower (galactose+mannose)/(arabinose+xylose) (GM/AX) ratios. This indicates a changed plant input and a higher contribution of microbial sugars. Contents of lignin phenols in the forest floor and coarse particle size fractions of the A horizons were significantly smaller at the dieback sites (p<0.01). Moreover, larger acid-to-aldehyde ratios of vanillyl units (Ac/Al)_v indicated an increased degree of lignin phenol alteration. Also contents of neutral sugars were significantly (p<0.01) smaller in the forest floor, but not in the A horizons of the dieback sites. The GM/AX mass ratios as well as the (rhamnose+fucose)/(arabinose+xylose) (RF/AX) ratios in the forest floor and coarse particle size fractions of the mineral topsoil were significantly (p<0.01) larger after forest dieback, indicating a larger relative contribution of microbial sugars. In general, the lignin phenol and neutral sugar pools of all three soil types exhibited similar response patterns to the changed site conditions. Our results demonstrate that the lignin and neutral sugar pools of humic topsoil horizons are highly sensitive to forest disturbances. However, the two compounds show different patterns in the mineral soil, with the major neutral sugar pool being stabilized against changes whereas the lignin phenol pool decreases significantly.     

Bird utilisation of rehabilitated bauxite minesites in Western Australia

Alcoa of Australia Limited rehabilitate bauxite mined areas in the southwest of Western Australia. One of the aims of the revegetation programme is to promote the return of fauna species which inhabited areas prior to mining.This paper discusses the extent to which bird species utilise revegetated bauxite minesites. It was shown that revegetated areas as young as 4–5 years can support similar bird species numbers, densities and diversities as unmined forest. However, the avifaunal populations occupying any rehabilitated area depend largely on the rehabilitation technique used. Factors which may be used to increase further avifaunal utilisation of minesites are discussed.The effects of jarrah dieback and fire on forest birds are compared with results for bauxite mined areas. From this, it is possible to assess the combined impact of dieback, fire and mining on the longer term conservation of jarrah forest bird species.     

Extreme climatic fluctuations as a cause of forest dieback in the pacific rim

An overview of forest diebacks in regions of the Pacific Rim strongly implicated extreme climatic fluctuations as a cause of dieback in the absence of significant acidic deposition and O₃ pollution. There was strong circumstantial evidence that extreme moisture fluctuations had incited cavitation injury on Eucalyptus, Metrosideros and Nothofagus species with recent dieback. The onset and intensification of crown dieback on Metrosideros in Hawaii related directly to the incidence of extreme rainfall followed by prolonged (2 to 4 weeks) clear, hot, dry weather. Research needs to substantiate the role of an irreversible cavitation dysfunction of the xylem as a mechanism of persistent crown dieback were discussed.     

Reptile and frog utilisation of rehabilitated bauxite minesites and dieback-affected sites in Western Australia's Jarrah Eucalyptus marginata forest

Alcoa of Australia Limited rehabilitate bauxite mined areas in the southwest of Western Australia. One of the aims of the revegetation programme is to promote the return of fauna species which inhabit areas prior to mining. This paper discusses the extent to which reptile and frog species utilise revegetated bauxite minesites. It was shown that 4–6 year old revegetated sites support similar numbers of reptile species as unmined sites, although densities are comparable to values recorded in poorer quality forest. Species utilisation of revegetated sites depended largely on the particular species microhabitat preferences.Comparison of community composition in various sites demonstrated high degrees of similarity between some rehabilitated sites and high quality forest sites.The effects of jarrah dieback disease on reptile and frog populations was also assessed. From the results, it is possible to assess the likely combined impact of dieback and mining on the longer term conservation of jarrah forest reptile and frog species.     

The PAH and organic content of sediment particle size fractions

A comparison of declining forests in Alaska, British columbia, and the Pacific Northwest United States to forest declines in eastern North America indicated that strong similarities existed and justified the use of the western forest region as an ‘acid rain’ control. The current level of wet acidic deposition over the western region was one-quarter that of eastern Canada and the United States. The onset of crown dieback on Chamaecyparis nootkatensis (1900) and Pinus monticola (1936) did not relate to the incidence of regional air pollution but to extreme climatic variation. The injury mechanism differentiating persistent decline on Pinus monticola from sporadic but transient dieback, which was observed on a larger number of conifer and deciduous tree species, was believed to be cavitation. This dysfunction of the xylem was induced by anomalous winter thaw-freeze conditions in 1936 followed by high summer temperatures and evapotranspiration stress in that and subsequent years. Similar extreme climatic conditions were present at the onset of forest declines in eastern North America and central Europe which suggests that the climate-cavitation-forest decline mechanism may be universal.     

Concentrations and depositions of SO2, SO4 2− etc. in a Chongqing suburban forested area

During the period from 25 May 1991 to 30 May 1992 the atmospheric concentrations and depositions of oxides of sulfur were continuously measured in a suburban masson pine forest which is currently experiencing severe dieback, in Chongqing, China. The annual mean concentrations of SO₂ and particulate SO₄ ^2? were 220 μ g/m³ (77 ppbv) and 32 μ g/m³ respectively. The atmospheric concentrations of these sulfur compounds were high in late autumn and winter. The annual wet and dry depositions of sulfur to the forest as measured by throughfall and stemflow were 93.1 and 46.6 kgSha^?1a^?1 respectively. These depositions are among the highest level ever reported in the world. Althogh the cause of the dieback of the masson pine trees has not been unequivocally determined, it is probable that the direct impact of SO₂ is more likely the cause than acid deposition.     

Rapid soil organic matter loss from forest dieback in a subalpine coniferous ecosystem

Forest dieback caused by climate-change associated stresses and insect outbreaks has emerged as a global concern, and the biogeochemical consequences of this phenomenon need to be elucidated. We measured biological and chemical traits of soil beneath live trees or trees recently killed by a mountain-pine-beetle outbreak in a subalpine coniferous forest in the Front Range of Colorado. We focused on the top 5 cm of mineral soil just beneath the O horizon and measured microbial biomass, soil invertebrate abundance and composition, and soil chemical characteristics. With the termination of inputs from rhizodeposition, mycorrhizal fungal turnover and fine root turnover, soil total carbon (C) and total nitrogen (N) in the mineral soil at three sites decreased by 38–49% and 26–45%, respectively. Tree mortality was associated with reduced soil microbial biomass but soil nematode and microarthropod densities were unchanged. Nematode trophic structure was altered with an increased proportion of bacterial feeders. Soil inorganic N concentrations were inversely correlated to microbial C:N ratios. Tree death was associated with increased soil pH, a possible loss of calcium (Ca²⁺), but an accumulation of soil inorganic N, largely as NH₄⁺. Our results suggest that forest dieback results in rapid C and N loss from surface mineral soils and that the accumulation of soil inorganic N, the reduction in microbial biomass, and the more bacterial-based soil food web increase the potential of enhanced N loss from affected ecosystems.     

Rapid soil organic matter loss from forest dieback in a subalpine coniferous ecosystem

Forest dieback caused by climate-change associated stresses and insect outbreaks has emerged as a global concern, and the biogeochemical consequences of this phenomenon need to be elucidated. We measured biological and chemical traits of soil beneath live trees or trees recently killed by a mountain-pine-beetle outbreak in a subalpine coniferous forest in the Front Range of Colorado. We focused on the top 5 cm of mineral soil just beneath the O horizon and measured microbial biomass, soil invertebrate abundance and composition, and soil chemical characteristics. With the termination of inputs from rhizodeposition, mycorrhizal fungal turnover and fine root turnover, soil total carbon (C) and total nitrogen (N) in the mineral soil at three sites decreased by 38–49% and 26–45%, respectively. Tree mortality was associated with reduced soil microbial biomass but soil nematode and microarthropod densities were unchanged. Nematode trophic structure was altered with an increased proportion of bacterial feeders. Soil inorganic N concentrations were inversely correlated to microbial C:N ratios. Tree death was associated with increased soil pH, a possible loss of calcium (Ca²⁺), but an accumulation of soil inorganic N, largely as NH₄⁺. Our results suggest that forest dieback results in rapid C and N loss from surface mineral soils and that the accumulation of soil inorganic N, the reduction in microbial biomass, and the more bacterial-based soil food web increase the potential of enhanced N loss from affected ecosystems.     

Natural stresses,nutrient imbalances and forest decline in southeastern Quebec

Recent information is presented on biotic and abiotic stresses that have affected the deciduous forest in southeastern Quebec over the last 10 years as well as on the nature and the extent of nutrient imbalances observed over the last five years. A large part of the forest dieback is thought to have resulted from insect defoliation and adverse climatic conditions, particularly drought, which took place in the early 1980's. However these factors alone do not seem to account for all symptoms of the current forest decline. Repeated samplings and analyses of sugar maple (Acer saccharum Marsh.) foliage in the Quebec Appalachians since 1983 has revealed the occurrence of severe nutrient imbalances, particularly very low K and P concentrations on several sites. More recently, Mg deficiency was found to be associated with declining sugar maple stands in the Lower Laurentians. Appropriate fertilizer applications have restored adequate nutrition of sugar maple during the first three or four years of observation. Disturbed nutrition is discussed in the context of forest nutrient cycling.     

坝上高原生态用地时空格局演变与生态系统服务价值分析

为了给当地的生态用地保护和区域间生态补偿提供科学依据,该研究在坝上高原地区1990、1995、2000、2005、2010和2015年6期土地利用解译数据的基础上,通过GIS等工具分析了研究区域1990-2015年间生态用地格局演变的基本特征,并对生态用地的生态系统服务价值进行了计算。主要结论如下:1990-2015年期间,研究区域生态用地数量呈减少趋势,其中林地和其他生态用地数量在增加,草地和湿地数量在减少。生态用地活跃程度在2000-2015年比1990-2000年期间更高。林地的空间稳定性最好,然后为草地和湿地,其他生态用地稳定性最差。生态用地生态系统服务价值由46.01亿元上升到428.26亿元,增加了8.31倍,林地和湿地提供的生态系统服务价值最大,其次为草地,其他生态用地最小,应当继续加强生态防护林建设,采取生物恢复技术,人工补水,科学禁牧、休牧、轮牧,调整产业结构等措施恢复和增加林地、湿地和草地的生态系统服务功能。     

Short-Term Changes of Response Indicators of Ecosystem Status in Broadleaved Forests in Tuscany (Central Italy)

The status of different response indicators of forest condition were measured and assessed between 1995 and 1997 at 6 Permanent Monitoring Plots (PMPs) in Tuscany (central Italy), where beech, holm oak and Turkey oak are the most frequent tree species. Foliage transparency, leaf damage and crown dieback have changed significantly over the monitoring period. Leaf area, length of the current year shoots, and total leaf area changed as well, but only for Turkey oak. Changes were consistent between and within the plots. Different indices of plant diversity showed marked changes, apparently linked to natural dynamics within individual ecosystems. These rapid and contrasting fluctuations in the various indicators of forest ecosystem make it difficult to derive a synthesis about the general condition of ecosystems and - especially - about the effects of air pollution.     

Factors predisposing forests to canopy collapse in the southern Ruahine Range, New Zealand

The introduced brushtail possum Trichosurus vulpecula Kerr is recognised as the primary agent of defoliation and stand-level dieback in New Zealand broadleaved forests (except Nothofagus). The distribution and magnitude of canopy collapse of forest in 33 500 ha of the southern Ruahine Range, New Zealand was mapped from 1995 polychrome aerial photographs. Relationships between canopy collapse and forest type, altitude, aspect and slope were analysed using generalised additive models. Canopy composition was the strongest factor predicting the extent of collapse and modification: broadleaved-conifer forest is most affected, with 68–87% of the area of six such forest types replaced by scrub-low forest and tree-fernland; and surprisingly, three Nothofagus-dominated types have up to 28% of their former area now in shrubland or tussock grassland. The susceptibility to collapse of Nothofagus forest was positively correlated with distance to non-Nothofagus forest types. Subalpine scrub, which is dominated by species not favoured by possums, has increased in area by 32%, replacing former upper montane forest. Physiographic factors were much less important in multiple regressions. However, in general terms, forests on steeper slopes, in the upper montane-subalpine zone, and on warm westerly and northerly aspects were more susceptible to collapse and modification than elsewhere. It is postulated that possums were the primary agent responsible for collapse of non-Nothofagus broadleaved forest, and that red deer Cervus elaphus and goats Capra hircus were responsible for inhibiting canopy replacement by eliminating regeneration in forest understoreys. Secondary effects, such as outbreaks of defoliating insects and mechanical damage from wind also contributed to canopy collapse and were possibly triggered by possums opening up the canopy. Collapse of Nothofagus canopies possibly results from a breakdown in the recruitment phase of stand turnover, by the smothering effects of deer-induced shrubs and tussock grasses on seedlings and saplings.     

Potential effects of the increase in carbon dioxide and climate change on the dynamics of vegetation

The continued CO₂ loading of the atmosphere appears to be responsible for inducing three new force factors controlling dynamic changes in the world's vegetation. They come from (1) enhanced fertilization with the single most important plant nutrient, (2) the widely expected global temperature increase, and (3) aggravated weather disturbances. Increased CO₂ absorption may enhance plant growth but it may also increase soil-nutrient limitations. It surely will enhance the metabolism of forest trees similarly as global warming will enhance plant metabolism, but both factors may also shorten the lifespan of perennial plants. Increased weather disturbances can be expected to produce new physiological stresses on the standing vegetation, particularly on habitats with poor soils. Since wide-spread forest decline has been reported from both the Atlantic and Pacific region, it seems possible that the roughly synchronie mass mortality of trees during the past two decades is related to the global increase in CO₂. The paper gives an overview of forest decline and dieback as known from past and present research and suggests how the changing atmospheric environment may interact in this widely observed contemporary phenomenon of vegetation dynamics.     

北京市红门川流域径流对防护林结构变化的响应

根据红门川流域原有1:1万土地利用图,结合流域1990,1995,2000和2005年共4期遥感影像,在GIS支持下,得到4期土地利用图,采用ArcView景观分析软件.得到防护林的空间格局变化情况.同时利用红门川流域1990-2006年逐日径流量的资料,研究了防护林空间格局变化与径流量的响应关系.结果表明,红门川流域防护林总面积和各森林类型面积方面均没有明显变化,防护林主要以乔木林为主,占防护林总面积的80%以上.在年降水量没有明显变化的基础上,红门川流域的径流量由1990年的3.00×107 m3减少到2005年后的1.00×107 m3以下,主要是防护林发挥了削洪减洪的功能.但是从研究结果来看,还不能准确得到防护林结构变化对径流产生重要影响的结论.     

Can forest-soil liming mitigate acidification of surface waters in Sweden?

Acidification of surface waters and forest soils is severe in large parts of southern Sweden. The shallow groundwaters are also affected. Large scale liming of surface waters and streams is in operation, often combined with wetland liming to limit the effects of acid episodes, e.g. at snow melt. Acid episodes are perhaps the most severe problem in limed surface waters and in many as yet well buffered waters, because of temperature-layered acid inflow, often superficial. As a result of some investigations, a large scale forest liming programme covering 6.500–10.000 km² was recently suggested. The main objectives of this forest liming programme are to retard cation depletion and to prevent nutrient imbalance and forest decline in acidified areas. This paper deals with the effects of forest soil liming on streams and surface waters. The response of water chemistry is very dependent on hydrological and soil properties. Although pH itself may be little affected by liming, the acidity (or negative ANC) decreases, inorganic Al-species decrease and the Al/BC-ratio increases in the runoff water. Especially interesting is that this is also true during acid episodes. This means that toxicity for acid sensitive biota decreases. These results indicate that large scale liming may have beneficial effects on surface water chemistry. Furthermore, as surface waters are expected to respond to smaller decreases in acid deposition than do forests soils, forest soil liming may allow less frequent liming of lakes. Consequently, forest soil liming in combination with the anticipated emission reductions may have very beneficial results on surface waters in certain areas of Sweden.     

1990-2017年喀斯特自然保护区土地利用变化对生境质量的影响

[目的] 探讨自然保护区生境质量变化规律及其影响因素,为制定有效的区域生态保护政策提供科学依据。[方法] 基于Landsat系列影像数据,采用生境质量估算模型与土地利用转型生境贡献率,以贵州省兴义市坡岗自然保护区为例,分析土地利用变化对不同功能分区生境质量的影响并定量评估退耕还林还草政策情景对生境质量改善效果。[结果] 1990—2017年自然保护区土地流转主要发生在草地和耕地转为林地、其他类型转为草地和林地间。28 a保护区平均生境质量提高15.71%,且呈现先增加后减少的趋势。1990年保护区平均生境质量表现为：缓冲区 > 核心区 > 试验区,2001年以后转换为：核心区 > 缓冲区 > 试验区。在退耕还林还草政策情景下,坡岗自然保护区平均生境质量从当前情景的0.88提高到0.92,生境质量改善。[结论] 坡岗自然保护区的建立、退耕还林还草工程的实施以及人类活动的增加是影响保护区生境质量变化的主要原因。