基于GIS的黄土高原水土流失监测站点布设方法研究

在GIS空间分析的基础上,借助领域专家知识归一化各侵蚀因子,对归一化的各侵蚀因子团进行叠加再分类和定量分析计算,为黄土高原地区水土流失监测网络布设的复杂空间决策过程提供辅助决策信息。在充分考虑黄土高原地区已有水土流失监测站、点的基础上,遵循国家有关水土流失监测站、点布设的相关规程规则,采用一级控制性监测点与二级局部监测点相结合的办法共布设监测站点138个。     

Using Moran's I and geostatistics to identify spatial patterns of soil nutrients in two different long‐term phosphorus‐application plots

The spatial variation of soil nutrients especially the soil test phosphorus (STP) in grassland soils is becoming important because of the use of soil‐nutrients information as a basis for policies such as the recently EU‐introduced Nitrates Directive. Up to now, the small‐scale spatial variation of soil nutrients in grassland has not been studied. The main aim of this study was to investigate the spatial patterns of soil nutrients in two grazed grassland plots with a long‐term (38 y) P‐application experiment, in order to better understand the spatial variation of soil nutrients and the correlation among soil nutrients in grasslands. Two small areas (one from a high‐P background and the other from a medium‐P background) were selected. Soil samples (304 per study area) were collected based on a 1 m × 1 m grid system. The samples were analyzed for STP, Mg, K, pH, and lime requirement (LR). The results were analyzed using conventional statistics, Moran's I, geostatistics, and a GIS. Based on the global Moran's I values, significant positive spatial autocorrelations were found for STP, Mg, pH, and LR in both study areas. Spatial clusters and spatial outliers were detected using the local Moran's I index. Clear linear‐shaped high‐high or low‐low value clusters of the studied variables except K were observed in the study areas due to long‐term usage of machine spreader or other agricultural‐management methods in the past. The corresponding linear patterns were further found in the spatial‐distribution maps. Small spatial patches were found for soil K revealing that it had a random spatial distribution related to the relatively uniform K fertilizer in the study areas. The spatial clusters revealed by local Moran's I were in line with the spatial patterns in the distribution maps.     

汾河太原段土壤中Hg、Cr空间分布与污染评价

为了探明汾河太原段土壤中Hg、Cr污染情况,在GIS支持下,运用地统计学方法,测定分析了汾河太原段两岸土壤中重金属Hg、Cr的含量和空间分布特征,采用单因子法对土壤中Cr、Hg的污染进行评价。结果表明：汾河太原段土壤中Hg含量高于山西省土壤背景值和中国土壤背景值,Cr含量与背景值相当;土壤中Hg和Cr半方差函数模型为高斯模型,属于空间中等程度相关,Hg和Cr有相似的空间分布格局,总体分布趋势为北中部和南部地区相对较高,北部和中南部相对较小;污染评价表明Hg污染较Cr污染严重,但所有土壤Hg含量均在国家土壤环境质量二级标准之内;土壤Hg、Cr污染防治应结合其空间分布格局和区域污染特征综合考虑。     

基于GPS和GIS的田间土壤特性空间变异性的研究

以一块面积约为13.3 hm²的冬小麦田为研究区，利用GPS接收机定位，按50 m×50 m设置网格，共取63个采样点，测定土壤表层(20 cm)内的土壤有机质、全氮、碱解氮、速效磷、速效钾、容重、田间土壤含水率和电导率，研究麦田土壤特性的空间变异规律。采用传统统计学和地统计学相结合的方法对所取的数据进行了分析，利用Arcview3.2软件的空间分析功能，绘制了表达这些土壤特性随机性和结构性的半方差图和空间分布图。研究结果表明：所有土壤特性均服从正态分布；土壤容重具有弱变异强度，其它土壤特性具有中等变异强度；土壤有机质、全氮、碱解氮、速效钾和电导率具有很强的相关性，土壤容重、速效磷和含水率具有中等强度的空间相关性，土壤特性的相关距变化范围为246.8～426.8 m。该成果可为农田的定位施肥、灌溉以及其它的农田精细管理提供依据。     

A multiscale soil–landform relationship in the glacial‐drift area based on digital terrain analysis and soil attributes

Understanding the linkages between structure and processes in soil landscapes involves analyses across several spatial and temporal scales. The transfer of information between scales requires the (1) identification of respective scale levels and (2) procedures for regionalization. Here, we present a multiparameter delineation of landform units and their attribution with typical Reference Soil Groups (RSG) of a landscape of NE Germany which is representative of young moraine regions. Data sources are a digital elevation model (DEM, 5 m × 5 m), a reference data set from sections of an intensively augered landscape, and expert knowledge. A conceptual digital soil map was constructed in the scale 1:5000 based on the Topographic Position Index (TPI). The methodology is applicable for multiscale analyses. Results are (1) the landform unit classified by digital terrain analysis of a DEM, (2) the attribution of RSG, and (3) the evaluation of the classification. Accuracy of the method was 57% overall, with 70% accuracy on typical erosional sites. The developed method allows identification of terrain‐related soil pattern with high spatial resolution in glacial‐drift areas. The high resolution of soil information can be used for delineation of management zones in precision farming, or as input for process studies and models requiring a translation of typological soil information into relevant soil properties (e.g., by pedotransfer functions).     

小流域林地空间分布对土壤侵蚀的影响——以陕北吴起县为例

为分析陕北黄土区小流域林地空间格局特征对土壤侵蚀的影响,以陕北吴起县为例,按照1%的均匀抽样比例,选取39个小流域,根据林地面积比例、林地斑块密度指数、林地斑块形状指数、林地植被覆盖度、林地坡位指数等表征林地空间分布特征的指标,运用系统聚类分析法对流域进行分类,分析林地的空间分布特征和土壤侵蚀模数的关系。结果表明:1)39个小流域可以分为4类,第1类林地面积比例较大,分布在中下坡位,第2类林地面积比例较小,分布在中中坡位,第3类林地面积比例很小,分布在中上坡位,第4类林地面积比例很大,分布在中中坡位;2)第1和4类,土壤侵蚀模数和林地植被覆盖度在0.05显著水平上表现出负相关关系,土壤侵蚀模数和林地空间分布特征指数多元线性回归方程的复相关系数为0.577(P<0.05),表明林地植被覆盖度增加是土壤侵蚀的主要抑制因素,同时,林地面积比例、林地斑块密度、林地形状指数的增加也会抑制土壤侵蚀,在一定范围内,林地靠近坡顶不利于防治土壤侵蚀。     

基于RS与GIS的鄂托克旗景观格局动态变化分析

在RS与GIS技术的支持下,利用2000年和2007年两期TM遥感影像,运用景观生态学原理和数理统计分析方法,从景观类型水平和景观格局水平角度,选取景观斑块密度指数等7个指标对鄂托克旗2000-2007年间景观格局动态变化进行分析。结果表明:在景观类型水平上,除耕地和未利用地面积有所减少外,其他类型的面积都有不同程度的增加。其中变化幅度最大的是草地景观,变化速度最快的是未利用地景观。在景观格局水平上,斑块密度、边缘密度都有所增加,说明景观破碎化程度加剧,异质性越来越高,人类干扰影响也越来越大;景观周长-面积分维度指数的增加说明景观斑块的自我相似性减小,几何形状趋于复杂化;分离度的变化趋势说明人类活动对人工景观的干扰强于半自然景观;同时,区域景观异质性的增大,景观斑块的连通性降低,人类活动强度越来越大,表现为多样性指数和均匀度指数增加,优势度指数减小。     

Temporal and spatial changes of soil erosion under land use and land cover change based on Chinese soil loss equation in the typical watershed on the Loess Plateau

Land use and land cover change (LULCC) directly affect the temporal and spatial change of soil erosion. As a typical governance watershed in the hilly and gully area of the Loess Plateau, the Jiuyuangou watershed has experienced significant LULCC in the past 10 years due to conversion of farmland to forests, economic construction, and cropland abandonment. However, the evolution process of soil erosion change and LULCC in the watershed is unclear, as is the relationship between the two. This study used satellite images to extract information on LULCC in the watershed and the Chinese soil loss equation (CSLE) model to evaluate the temporal and spatial evolution of soil erosion in the watershed from 2010 to 2020. The main results showed that (1) the continuous vegetation restoration project in the watershed reduced soil erosion from 2010 to 2015; however, the increased frequency of extreme rainfall events after 2015 reduced its impact. The annual average soil erosion modulus decreased from 10.85 t ha⁻¹ year⁻¹ in 2010 to 8.03 t ha⁻¹ year⁻¹ in 2015 but then increased to 10.57 t ha⁻¹ year⁻¹ in 2020; (2) the main land use and land cover (LULC) type in the Jiuyuangou watershed is grassland, accounting for 62% of the total area, followed by forestland, cropland, buildings, and water. Cropland has the largest multi-year average soil erosion modulus, followed by grassland and buildings, with forestland having the smallest; (3) significant spatial correlations occurred between soil erosion change and LULCC for common ‘no change’ and common ‘gain’ in the settlements, roads, and areas near the human influences with good soil and water conservation, but not other regions due to the influence of climatic factors (heavy rain events). Thus, we should repair terraces, control dams in the watershed, and actively conserve water and soil. This study provides a scientific reference for planning and managing water and soil conservation and ecological environment construction in the watershed.     

The Representative Soil Sampling Scheme of England and Wales: the spatial variation of topsoil nutrient status and pH between 1971 and 2001

The Representative Soil Sampling Scheme (RSSS) has monitored the soil of agricultural land in England and Wales since 1969. Here we describe the first spatial analysis of the data from these surveys using geostatistics. Four years of data (1971, 1981, 1991 and 2001) were chosen to examine the nutrient (available K, Mg and P) and pH status of the soil. At each farm, four fields were sampled; however, for the earlier years, coordinates were available for the farm only and not for each field. The averaged data for each farm were used for spatial analysis and the variograms showed spatial structure even with the smaller sample size. These variograms provide a reasonable summary of the larger scale of variation identified from the data of the more intensively sampled National Soil Inventory. Maps of kriged predictions of K generally show larger values in the central and southeastern areas (above 200 mg L^?1) and an increase in values in the west over time, whereas Mg is fairly stable over time. The kriged predictions of P show a decline over time, particularly in the east, and those of pH show an increase in the east over time. Disjunctive kriging was used to examine temporal changes in available P using probabilities less than given thresholds of this element. The RSSS was not designed for spatial analysis, but the results show that the data from these surveys are suitable for this purpose. The results of the spatial analysis, together with those of the statistical analyses, provide a comprehensive view of the RSSS database as a basis for monitoring the soil. These data should be taken into account when future national soil monitoring schemes are designed.     

The effect of preferential flow on the short and long-term spatial distribution of surface applied solutes in a structured soil

We measured the lateral distribution of Br in a well-structured soil (clayey, kaolinitic, thermic Typic Kanhapludults) over a period of 40 days following a leaching event with Br-tagged water (Event-1) and the subsequent vertical transport of solute that occurred following a second leaching event (Event-2). The objectives were to determine the time required for solutes to become uniformly distributed laterally after Event-1, and the effect that degree of spatial distribution had on the subsequent vertical movement induced by Event-2. Six field plots, 1.2 by 1.2 m, were exposed to Event-1. Three of the plots were sampled 1, 5, or 40 days later. The three remaining plots were exposed to Event-2 either 1, 5, or 40 days following Event-1 and they were sampled the day following Event-2. A total of 319 samples were taken from a 38.5 by 38.5 cm area in the center of each plot at each of five depths ranging from 5 to 60 cm. Bromide was practically uniformly distributed in the surface layer immediately following Event-1, as indicated by a coefficient of variation (CV) of 25% among the 319 samples, but became progressively more non-uniformly distributed as depth increased. At 60 cm, the CV had increased to 240%. The longer we delayed sampling following Event-1, the more uniform was the lateral distribution of Br. During the 40 days following Event-1, Br became practically uniformly distributed across all layers, and the center of mass moved from 8 to 16 cm below the surface. Event-2 caused Br to move deeper within the soil profile when it occurred the day following Event-1 than when it occurred later, but because drainage occurred during the 40-day delay, the center of Br mass was located 26–27 cm below the surface after Event-2 regardless of the delay time.     

Effects of spatial heterogeneity and subsample pooling on the measurement of abiotic and biotic soil properties in rainforest,pasture and reforested sites

Spatial variability presents a challenge for effective measurement of ecological processes in soil ecosystems. This study characterized the heterogeneity of seven different biotic and abiotic soil properties at three ecological scales: land‐use type (vegetation type), site (scale of km to tens of km, and subplot (10–30 m). We addressed three questions about soil properties: (i) Do they differ more at any ecological scale when compared with other scales? (ii) Does physically combining samples from replicate subplots affect their measurement? (iii) What are the implications of this variation for the detection of differences caused by changing land‐use? There were five land‐use types: remnant rainforest, pasture, ecological restoration plantings 10–15 yrs old, 40–50 yrs regrowth dominated by the non‐native tree camphor laurel (Cinnamomum camphora) and rainforest regrowth 3–6 yrs after poisoning of camphor trees within older regrowth. Sites were interspersed within a 750 km² region of subtropical Eastern Australia. In general, variability was greatest at the site and subplot levels. Soil water content, soil organic matter and pH were less variable than total organic carbon, microbial biomass, nitrate and nitrification. Power analyses using total organic carbon and nitrate showed that adequate replication at both site and subplot levels was important for detecting effects of land‐use type, although increased replication was slightly more effective for subplots than for sites. Subplot spacing was relatively unimportant. Physically combining subplot samples to yield one aggregate measurement per site was successful in reducing analytical effort without sacrificing accuracy for all soil properties except total organic carbon and nitrification.     

Mineral dust around the Sahara—from source to sink. A review with emphasis on contributions of the German soil science community in the last twenty years

Natural mineral dust has manifold environmental effects reaching from fertilizing aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems to affecting the earth's radiation balance and thus impacting on climate. The Sahara is considered the largest source of natural mineral dust on the globe, so much research attention has been paid to source identification, dust mobilization, transport, and effects in the sink areas. This paper gives a review of the research results concerning these topics emphasizing soil‐science‐related aspects of the last 20 y and the identification of knowledge gaps.     

Quantifying terrestrial carbon stocks: examining the spatial variation in two upland areas in the UK and a comparison to mapped estimates of soil carbon

Intensive field surveys were undertaken in two upland catchments in the UK, Plynlimon in mid-Wales and Glensaugh in North East Scotland. The survey was to examine the spatial variation across the area and to assess the accuracy of the database underpinning the soil carbon map for the UK. In each area three 1-km² squares were sampled on a 200-m grid, with samples taken from both the organic and mineral horizons. Carbon stock was estimated, from the sample data, for each 1-km² square and compared with values from the UK database for that square. The results showed large differences between some squares, particularly for Plynlimon. In this area, the overall discrepancy between field and database values was 45%, compared with 8% for Glensaugh. Various sources of uncertainty were examined, including bulk density, organic horizon depth, and the proportion of different soil types within a square. The value for bulk density, assumed to determine carbon stock, had a significant effect on the estimates. In both catchments the organic layer showed a gradual decrease in bulk density with depth, resulting in a large proportion of the carbon being stored in the top part of the profile. The soil types, mapped during the survey, also showed large differences from those previously identified for each 1-km² square. This would have a considerable effect on the estimates of carbon stock within the UK database. It highlights that caution needs to be used when interpreting the UK soil map at this spatial scale.     

Land use and soil erosion in the upper reaches of the Yangtze River: some socio‐economic considerations on China's Grain‐for‐Green Programme

Soil erosion in the upper reaches of the Yangtze River in China is a major concern and the Central Government has initiated the Grain‐for‐Green Programme to convert farmland to forests and grassland to improve the environment. This paper analyses the relationship between land use and soil erosion in Zhongjiang, a typical agricultural county of Sichuan Province located in areas with severe soil erosion in the upper reaches of the Yangtze River. In our analysis, we use the ArcGIS spatial analysis module with detailed land‐use data as well as data on slope conditions and soil erosion. Our research shows that the most serious soil erosion is occurring on agricultural land with a slope of 10∼25 degrees. Both farmland and permanent crops are affected by soil erosion, with almost the same percentage of soil erosion for corresponding slope conditions. Farmland with soil erosion accounts for 86·2 per cent of the total eroded agricultural land. In the farmland with soil erosion, 22·5 per cent have a slope of < 5 degrees, 20·3 per cent have a slope of 5∼10 degrees, and 57·1 per cent have a slope of > 10 degrees. On gentle slopes with less than 5 degrees inclination, some 6 per cent of the farmland had strong (5000∼8000 t km⁻² y⁻¹) or very strong (8000∼15000 t km⁻² y⁻¹) erosion. However, on steep slopes of more than 25 degrees, strong or very strong erosion was reported for more than 42 per cent of the farmland. These numbers explain why the task of soil and water conservation should be focused on the prevention of soil erosion on farmland with steep or very steep slopes. A Feasibility Index is developed and integrated socio‐economic assessment on the feasibility of improving sloping farmland in 56 townships and towns is carried out. Finally, to ensure the success of the Grain‐for‐Green Programme, countermeasures to improve sloping farmland and control soil erosion are proposed according to the values of the Feasibility Index in the townships and towns. These include: (1) to terrace sloping farmland on a large scale and to convert farmland with a slope of over 25 degrees to forests or grassland; (2) to develop ecological agriculture combined with improving the sloping farmland and constructing prime farmland and to pay more attention to improving the technology for irrigation and cultivation techniques; and (3) to carry out soil conservation on steep‐sloping farmland using suggested techniques. In addition, improving ecosystems and the inhabited environment through yard and garden construction for households is also an effective way to prevent soil erosion. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The spatial variability of soil nitrates in arable and pasture landscapes: implications for the development of geographical information system models of nitrate leaching

Abstract. In response to the European Community Nitrate Directive (91/676) a catchment scale Geographical Information System (GIS) model of nitrate leaching has been developed to map nitrate vulnerability and predict average weekly fluxes of nitrate from agricultural land units to surface water. This paper presents a pilot study which investigated the spatial variability of soil nitrates in order to: (1) define an appropriate pixel size for modelling N leaching; (2) quantify the within-unit variability of soil nitrate concentrations for pasture and arable fields; and (3) assist in the design of an efficient sampling strategy for estimating mean nitrate concentrations. Soil samples, taken from two 800 m transects in early September 1994, were analysed for water soluble nitrate. The arable soils had a mean nitrate-nitrogen concentration of 0.693 μg/g (S.E. 0.054 μg/g) and the pasture soils had a higher mean nitrate-nitrogen concentration of 0.86 μg/g (S.E. 0.085 μg/g). Spatial variability was investigated using variograms. The pasture data had a weak spatial relationship, whereas the arable data exhibited a strong spatial relationship which fitted a spherical variogram model (r² 0.87), with a range of 40 m. A pixel size of 40 m is suggested for nitrate modelling within the GIS based on the arable variogram and an improved sampling strategy for model validation is suggested, involving bulking sub-samples over a 40 m grid for estimating mean nitrate concentrations in combined land use and soil units.     

Effects of field reorganisation on the spatial variability of runoff and erosion rates in vineyards of Northeastern Spain

This study analyses the spatial variability of runoff and erosion rates in vineyards due to mechanisation works. Runoff samples were collected at three positions in two plots after 33 erosive events in three years (2001, 2003, 2004) with different rainfall patterns. Three replications were considered at each position. Soil properties were evaluated in order to analyse its relationship with runoff and erosion rates. Runoff and erosion rates were, on average, higher in the levelled plot (HD), ranging between 8·4 and 34·3 per cent, than in the non‐levelled plot (LD) ranging between 8·2 and 24·1 per cent. Mean sediment concentration in runoff ranged between 6 and 8 g L⁻¹ in the HD plot and about 4·6 g L⁻¹ in the LD plot, but with high differences within the plot. In the HD plot, runoff‐rainfall rates were significantly higher (at 95 per cent level) in the upper part of the slope and decreased along the slope, while in the LD plot, differences in runoff rates were not significant and similar to those observed in the less disturbed areas of the HD plot. The higher susceptibility to soil sealing in areas where the original topsoil was removed conditioned runoff rates. In the lower part of the HD plot runoff rates were, on average, 20 per cent lower than in the upper part of the slope. In those positions runoff rates up to 79 per cent were recorded. Organic matter content and water retention capacity at different potentials are the soil characteristics related to the differences on runoff and erosion rates in the resulting soils. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.