Evolution of farm management, nitrogen efficiency and economic performance on Dutch dairy farms reducing external inputs

The implementation of the statutory Mineral Accounting System (MINAS) in the Netherlands in the period 1998–2003 required large reductions in nutrient inputs of dairy farms. Patterns in farm management adjustments throughout 6 years and their effectiveness in terms of nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) and economic performance were evaluated for 45 commercial farms participating in a regional nutrient management project.

Six groups of farms were identified that differed in initial NUE and the change therein. Three groups of farms that were able to rapidly reduce fertilizer N input and establish a consistent farm management strategy were most successful in improving NUE. These farms had a higher gross margin per 100 kg milk than farms without a consistent strategy. The three effective strategies were primarily characterized by (i) continuous, gradual adjustment of the integrated farm management combined with a slight reduction in milk production per ha (re-balancing) versus increasing productivity per animal, thereby reducing maintenance N requirements, while (ii) maintaining or (iii) increasing the production intensity per ha. It was concluded that different approaches to improve NUE can be successful, also in economic terms, although a direct relationship between NUE and gross margin was not observed. The probably implicit choice for adoption of a strategy may be governed by farm endowment and the farmer's skills and objectives.     

An economic opportunity survey of small dairy farms in Paraguay

Participatory rural appraisal (PRA) in 15 small farms and an economic opportunity survey (EOS) in 13 were carried out in the Cordillera basin of Paraguay to identify production constraints and the best ways to achieve economic gain. PRA showed farmers’ perception was that nutrition was the main constraint. The EOS showed that over 70% of the milk produced was sold in the neighbourhood. The average number of adult cows (lactating and dry cows) per farm ranged from 15 to 120, of which 62.2% to 80% were lactating cows. Milk production per cow on one day ranged from 8.5 to 18.2 litres and average lactation length was more than 300 days. Average age at first calving varied from 31 to 39 months. The highest economic opportunity was observed for increased milk production. Age at first calving and calf production interval were also found to be important constraints. Ultrasonography survey of the ovaries 20 maiden heifers over six months showed inadequate activity. Partially budgeted interventions were instituted to improve nutrition and management of maiden heifers, in-calf cows and those in early lactation. More forages were grown. PRA and EOS were shown to be useful tools in identifying production constraints.     

A comparison of economic performance between high-yielding temperate breeds and zebu-crossbreds on smallholder dairy farms in Southern Malawi with particular focus on reproductive performance

As in other sub-Saharan African countries, purebred dairy genetics such as Holsteins were imported to Malawi. The study investigated their economic performance by comparing them with local Zebu-crossbreds based on 131 smallholder dairy farm observations from Southern Malawi. High-yielding purebred cows and crossbred cows showed no significant differences in lactation yield and calving interval. Looking at the farms’ actual costs, by-products such as maize bran clearly dominated the cost structure for both breeds, but crossbreeds showed significantly lower concentrate costs. While there was no statistically significant difference in income for both breed types, a substantial share (23%) of farms under investigation shows negative incomes. Based on survey data, two typical farms were established representing standard costs with homogenous assumptions such as identical milk price. The comparison of typical farms covering the full dairy system clearly indicated that crossbred dairy cows outperformed purebreds. In addition, a simulation of a shorter calving interval for both typical farms revealed a substantial positive impact on income for both breed types with more than 30% increase. We conclude that focusing on crossbreds in combination with improved feeding and fertility management offers a more promising strategy for smallholder dairy farms in Southern Malawi than just acquiring high-yielding purebreds.     

The economic margins of activities of a bovine practitioner on dairy farms

Because of lower margins and market liberalisation veterinarians and farmers are increasingly negotiating rates. Therefore, the margins of veterinarians are under pressure. In addition, the sales if drugs, performance of operations or giving of advice are more and more separated. These developments give veterinarians uncertainty about the profitability of their activities for dairy farmers. Not much is known about margins on veterinary activities on dairy farms. Moreover, it is interesting to see how much margins of the bovine practitioner differ between veterinary practises and dairy farms. In this study, invoices for bovine activities of 14 veterinary practises were combined with milk production registration data of the dairy farms of these practices. This way, the gross margin per bovine practitioner could be studied for the different veterinary practise. Moreover the relation between gross margin and specification of the veterinary practise could be studied. Finally, the gross margin per dairy farm and the factors that influenced this gross margin were studied. The most important result was the observation that the gross margin per bovine practitioner was dependent on the number of dairy farms per practitioner, the margin on drugs and the region of the veterinary practise. The size of the veterinary practise, the share of the dairy farming within the practise and the source of the gross margin (drugs, time or operations) did not influence the gross margin. Variables that explained the gross margin per dairy farm were, amongst others, the number of dairy cows, the milk production level of the farms and participation in PIR-DAP (a system to support the veterinarians herd health and management program). There is no relation of gross margin per dairy farm and the veterinary practise or region.     

Methods for conducting an economic opportunity survey in smallholder dairy farms

A form was developed for on-farm use to collect data on dairy cow inventory, animals born, died, and sold, milk consumed and sold, and feedstuffs. Using these data, ten herd management indices are calculated in a spreadsheet. These data are gathered from multiple farms in an area and are summarized to develop herd target or benchmark values. Economic opportunities for achieving target performance at the individual farm level are calculated for five of the indices. This Economic Opportunity Survey has been used to develop regional performance benchmarks and to help individual farmers identify areas for improvement and opportunities for future intervention.     

A survey to identify economic opportunities for smallholder dairy farms in Bangladesh

Identified economic opportunities for planning interventions greatly increase farmers’ compliance with an extension programme. We investigated opportunities for interventions to increase dairy farmers’ income in four areas of Bangladesh, including the districts of Mymensingh, Khulna-Satkhira, Sirajgonj-Pabna and Chittagong. The data were collected from 1440 dairy farms at a one-day visit and were summarized as the difference between management targets and each herd’s calculated management indices. The average number of lactating cows, feed cost as a percentage of income from milk, milk sold as percentage of milk produced, lactating cows as a percentage of mature cows, and lactating cows as a percentage of total cattle varied from 1.5 to 3.4, from 52.5% to 92.1%, from 78.7% to 92.6%, from 81.9% to 86.7% and from 34.3% to 37.7%, respectively. The average age at first calving, calf production interval, lactation length, and milk production were 35.0–44.3 months, 14.0–17.6 months, 249–286 days and 3.5–7.2 litres, respectively, depending on the locality. The average cost for producing 100 litres of milk was 18.9–35.1 US dollars. The production cost increased when daily milk production per cow decreased (r² = 0.43–0.55). Management improvements directed towards increasing average milk production per cow per day, increasing lactation length, decreasing age to first calving, and decreasing calf production interval could expect to yield an average income increase up to a range of 676.3–1730.6 US dollars depending on the milk-producing area.     

The detection and measurement of stray electrical leakages on dairy farms: effects on performance

Sources of stray electrical leakage from Power Supply Authority alternating current (AC), fence energiser pulses and randomly generated pulses and spikes on 55 dairy farms in the Waikato area were identified between December 1986 and March 1988.

The electrical measurements were made using a specifically designed voltmeter able to detect voltages between 0.1V and 1500V, from single voltage spikes of two microseconds oi- greater duration from direct current (DC) as well as 50 Hz AC. Ninety-five sources of stray voltage were identified, and 53 per cent of properties had more than one source of >0.5V. The major source was from electric fence energisers. Rotary platform parlours were among the commonest sources of random or transient voltage spikes. Leakage of AC into one or other of the components of the milk transport system such as vat, plate cooler, milk lift pump and milk line was common.

Owners acknowledged the improvements in milk production, reproductive performance and growth rate of calves after reduction of the exposure of dairy cattle to stray electrical leakage. A representative summary of five case records helps define the range of improvement that may possibly be achieved.     

Risk factors associated with reproductive performance in small-scale dairy farms in Mexico

Several studies suggest that reproductive performance in small-scale dairy farms is low reducing the farms’ profitability. Therefore, identifying risk factors associated with low reproductive performance is a key step to implement an improved reproductive management program. Accordingly, the aim of the present study was to identify the main risk factors affecting the reproductive performance of cows in small-scale dairy farms. Ninety-six dairy farms were incorporated into this study, and data from 1263 lactations were collected with different events as potential risk factors. Logistic regression models were used to assess the association (odds ratio, OR) and impact (population attributable fraction, PAF) between the potential risk factors and the reproductive variables. The main risk factors associated with assisted calving were male calf and primiparous cows (OR?=?1.7, PAF?=?0.315 and OR?=?1.5, PAF?=?0.131, respectively), while for retained fetal membranes (RFM) were assisted calving and abortion (OR?=?4.5, PAF?=?0.440 and OR?=?8.1, PAF?=?0.239, respectively). The main risk factors for days to first service over 70 days in milk were low body condition score at calving (BCS?≤?2.5) and primiparous cows (OR?=?2.2, PAF?=?0.285 and OR?=?1.4; PAF?=?0.096, respectively), while for days open over 110 days in milk were low BCS at calving (BCS?≤?2.5) and primiparous cows (OR?=?1.7, PAF?=?0.213 and OR?=?1.4; PAF?=?0.096, respectively) The main risk factor for non-pregnant cows at first service was RFM (OR?=?1.7; PAF?=?0.059). In conclusion, assisted calving, male calf, BCS?≤?2.5 and RFM were the main risk factors associated with reduced reproductive performance in small-scale dairy farms in tropical and subtropical regions of Mexico.

     

The detection and measurement of stray electrical leakages on dairy farms: effects on performance

Sources of stray electrical leakage from Power Supply Authority alternating current (AC), fence energiser pulses and randomly generated pulses and spikes on 55 dairy farms in the Waikato area were identified between December 1986 and March 1988. The electrical measurements were made using a specifically designed voltmeter able to detect voltages between 0.1V and 1500V, from single voltage spikes of two microseconds or greater duration from direct current (DC) as well as 50 Hz AC. Ninety-five sources of stray voltage were identified, and 53 per cent of properties had more than one source of >0.5V. The major source was from electric fence energisers. Rotary platform parlours were among the commonest sources of random or transient voltage spikes. Leakage of AC into one or other of the components of the milk transport system such as vat, plate cooler, milk lift pump and milk line was common. Owners acknowledged the improvements in milk production, reproductive performance and growth rate of calves after reduction of the exposure of dairy cattle to stray electrical leakage. A representative summary of five case records helps define the range of improvements that may possibly be achieved.     

The effects of lameness on reproductive performance, milk production and culling in Dutch dairy farms

A retrospective cohort study design was used to investigate the effect of lameness on reproductive performance on 13 commercial Dutch dairy farms. The data were collected during a routine herd health and production control program.

The cumulative 100-DIM (days in milkl) production in the previous lactation of lame cows was higher and the culling rate lower than that of the controls. The 100- and 270-DIM production of the cows with a sole ulcer was higher than that of the control cows. There was no difference in 100- and 270-DIM production between cows with a lameness diagnosis other than sole ulcer and the controls.

Lameness prolonged the interval from calving to first service and the interval from first service to conception. The pregnancy rate at first service was not affected by lameness.     

Effect of nematode infections and management practices on growth performance of calves on commercial dairy farms

Liveweight of calves on 86 dairy farms was measured at the end of the grazing season and related per herd to the level of exposure to nematode infection estimated in October and December. There were significant between-herd variations in all the serological infection parameters measured. On average 20.5 larvae per gram faeces (geometric mean) were found in October. Faecal samples of 20.5% of the herds contained lungworm larvae. Liveweight of calves deviated per herd from -59.8 kg to +52.2 kg from an age-adjusted population mean after their first grazing season. Growth performance was significantly related negatively to several serological and parasitological parameters. Data were fitted by means of both linear and segmented curvilinear regression. By combining infection parameters 19% of the variation in growth performance among herds could be explained. Infection parameters involved were antibody titre against Cooperia spp., egg output and lungworm larval count. It was found that antibody titres were significantly correlated positively to herd age, while pepsinogen values and egg output were negatively correlated to age. Combining supplementary feeding and anthelmintic treatment during the grazing season with the infection parameters into one model explained approximately 30% of the observed variation in growth performance among herds. It was shown that these findings were consistent with those of a similar study conducted on the same farms a year earlier, although there were clear differences between the years. Finally, significant positive relations were found between the levels of exposure to nematode parasites within farms between two consecutive years.     

Animal grouping strategies, sources of variation, and economic factors affecting nutrient balance on dairy farms

Increasing environmental concerns are forcing animal industries to reevaluate current feeding practices and their relationships to nutrient excretion. Previous modeling efforts have used simple budgets of nutrient flows through animals, assuming a constant productivity level. This assumption is not valid if animals are not in a steady state. A response model of dairy cow production to levels of net energy for lactation (NEL) and crude protein (CP) was derived from an abrupt threshold and plateau model of individuals. Monte Carlo techniques were used to simulate populations of cows fed diets of various NEL and CP concentrations, to derive the optimum allocation of NEL and CP, and to estimate how the optimum is affected by herd production potential, prices of inputs, and uncertainty of parameters. The simulation showed that a 25% increase in milk production reduced N excretion per kilogram of milk produced by 8%. Improved knowledge of the biology involved and feed composition can reduce N excretion by an additional 8%. Grouping strategies and number of groups used affect optimum allocation of nutrients. An optimum of six milking groups per production unit was derived from the simulation and would reduce N excretion by 8% compared to herds fed in one group.     

Impact of feeding pattern and feed purchase on area- and cow-related dairy performance of organic farms

Livestock production and ruminants in particular are an integral part of the organic mixed farming concept. In this paper, the feeding patterns of 26 organic dairy farms in two different regions in Germany are analysed, with particular emphasis on the amount and proportion of concentrates and purchased feed related to the dairy performance expressed per cow and hectare. Calculated on an energy basis (MJ NEL), the annual average milk yield of 6737 kg cow^− 1 is derived from roughage (74%), concentrates and cobs (23%), and commercial processing by-products (e.g., spent grains) (3%). Per cow and year, 937 kg dry matter (DM) (range: 0–2724 kg) of concentrates are fed with an intensity of 135 g kg^− 1 milk (range: 0–378 g kg^− 1). Approximately 65% of the concentrates and commercial processing by-products are purchased. The area-related milk yield is almost 7000 kg ha^− 1. For fodder production, 0.96 ha per cow is needed, of which 0.85 ha is farm land. The equivalent production area for purchased fodder is 0.11 ha. In the analysed region in northwestern Germany, most correlations between milk yield and analysed feeding parameters are close and significant. This is in contrast to the region in the south, where the variability of amount and proportion of the different feed types is predominantly independent of the milk yield. Intensification of dairy production to increase milk performance using a higher proportion of concentrates and purchased feed at some of the analysed farms needs to be carefully assessed according to the organic farming profile.     

Effect of nematode infections on growth performance of calves during winter housing on dairy farms

Growth performance of calves was estimated by means of heart girth measurements on 48 farms during winter housing (from December to the end of March). Level of exposure to nematode infection was measured by antibody titres, pepsinogen values, and faecal examinations. Half of each herd was treated with albendazole after housing. All infection parameters measured in March were significantly lower in the treated groups than in the untreated control groups. Treatment increased growth rate by an average of +0.007 cm day-1 (N.S.), i.e. +0.036 kg day-1. Effect of treatment varied from -0.075 to +0.100 cm day-1 among herds. This effect of treatment on the growth performance was significantly correlated positively to pepsinogen value (r = 0.321, P less than 0.05 measured in October; r = 0.265, P less than 0.10 measured in December). Control groups showed very different growth rates among herds, ranging from 0.023 to 0.170 cm day-1, i.e. 0.112-0.874 kg day-1. This variation was strongly related to several infection parameters, particularly those measured in October. The most pronounced correlation was found between the average daily gain of the control groups and the mean herd antibody titre against Ostertagia spp. measured in October (r = -0.413, P less than 0.01). These results were consistent with those of a similar study conducted on commercial dairy farms a year earlier.     

Stray voltage on Michigan dairy farms

Stray voltage investigations were performed on 59 Michigan dairy farms at the request of dairymen, veterinarians, and county extension agents. On 32 farms, sources of stray voltage were detected. When the voltage exceeded 1 volt alternating current, there were increased numbers of dairy cows that had abnormal behavior in the milking facility and increased prevalence of clinical mastitis. Recovery from the stray voltage-induced abnormalities was related to the type of abnormality and the magnitude of the exposure voltage.     

Effect of nematode infections on growth performance of calves after stabling on commercial dairy farms

Growth performance of calves was assessed on 32 farms during winter housing. Nematode infection was measured by antibody titres, pepsinogen values, and faecal examinations. Half of each herd was treated with ivermectin after stabling. Treatment significantly increased growth rate by an average of +0.059 kg day-1 (P less than 0.01). The effect of treatment varied among herds from -0.078 to +0.210 kg day-1. Only a few of the infection parameters correlated weakly, but positively, to the effect of treatment on growth performance per herd. Untreated control groups showed very different growth rates among herds, ranging from 0.250 to 0.936 kg day-1. This was strongly correlated to several infection parameters. Groups with the highest values for the infection parameters gained approximately 50 kg less over a 4-month period during winter housing than groups with the lowest values for those infection parameters.     

影响奶牛生产性能及经济效益的因素

在规模化牛场的生产过程中,品种、营养、牛群结构、饲养管理、疾病防治等因素对奶牛生产及经济效益有很大影响.而选择高产品种、调整营养水平、建立合理的牛群结构、采取适宜的饲养管理和疾病防治措施,不仅能够提高奶牛的生产性能、繁殖性能,还能降低饲养成本、提高经济效益.文章对影响奶牛生产性能及经济效益的因素进行论述,为促进我国规模...     

Analysis of results from 21 years of milking system inspections in Japanese dairy farms

To prevent mastitis caused by inappropriate milking systems, inspection of the system, and maintenance of optimal function are crucial. This study aimed to clarify the problems with milking systems in Japan by analyzing the results of milking system inspections over the past 21 years. A total of 190 dairy farms (358 systems; 153 high‐line systems, 205 low‐line systems) were inspected for the checkpoints of problems originating from installation (PI) or problems originating from insufficient maintenance (PIM). Results were divided into initial and periodic inspections, then analyzed by year of inspection or years elapsed since equipment installation. With increasing years, inadequacy of milk piping and regulator maintenance tended to increase for high‐line systems. On the other hand, defects in milking units tended to increase for low‐line systems. This difference was attributed to the structures of these milking systems. The present study revealed potential problem areas in high‐ and low‐line milking systems from recent years. To maintain normal functioning in milking systems, the frequency and content of inspections as currently being conducted need to be reviewed.     

对四川奶牛隐性乳房炎的调查研究

本文采用美国加利福尼亚快速诊断法(CMT法)对四川四家大型奶牛场(A、B、C、D)96头泌乳奶牛的360个乳区进行隐性乳房炎的检测,对患隐性乳房炎的奶牛及其乳区的阳性率进行了样本百分数差异显著性检验,并对患隐性乳房炎奶牛的胎次、日产奶量、年龄与发生率的关系进行了相关性检验。结果得出:被检奶牛隐性乳房炎的头发生率为25%,乳区发生率为9.17%;奶牛隐性乳房炎发生率和泌乳奶牛年龄、胎次呈显著正相关,奶牛隐性乳房炎发生率对日产奶量也有显著影响。