Equine protozoal myeloencephalitis in the Netherlands? An overview

Equine protozoal myeloencephalitis (EPM) was diagnosed in a Dutch Warmblood gelding a few months after its export to the United States. The horse came back and was treated here. Additionally, an overview of the disease complex 'EPM' is given. Mode of infection, diagnosis of disease and its differential diagnoses, and general therapeutic options are presented. Although EPM due to infection with Sarcocystis neurona in Europe seems restricted to those horses that return or are imported from North America, the possibility of future cases of EPM caused by an infection with Neospora spp. is briefly discussed.     

Dietary Fat Supplementation and the Consequences for Oocyte and Embryo Quality: Hype or Significant Benefit for Dairy Cow Reproduction?

In many countries, fat supplementation in the diet has become common in the dairy industry. There are several ideas as to how dietary fat could influence reproductive performance. Saturated fatty acids, such as palm oil, can increase milk yield but may aggravate negative energy balance and thus may impair fertility when fed during the first week post‐partum. However, priming the lipid oxidation in the liver by feeding saturated fats during the dry period has recently been shown to be a potentially promising strategy to mitigate fat mobilization and liver accumulation post‐partum. Furthermore, polyunsaturated fats (omega‐3 fatty acids and conjugated linoleic acids) are fed to reduce the ‘de novo’ fat synthesis in the udder and thus the milk fat content, which may be of modest benefit for overall energy balance. Furthermore, omega‐6 and omega‐3 polyunsaturated fatty acids are reported to alter follicular growth, steroid synthesis and prostaglandin metabolism in the ovary and endometrium, respectively. Omega‐6 fatty acids are believed to have pro‐inflammatory and thus PGF2α‐stimulating properties rendering them extra value as ‘nutraceutical’ early post‐partum, while omega‐3 fatty acids can weaken this inflammatory potency, leading to a higher chance of survival of the embryo when supplemented during the periconceptual period. Unfortunately, research results rarely provide a consensus in this perspective. The consequences of these fat‐feeding strategies on oocyte and embryo quality remain an intriguing issue for debate. Fat feeding may alter the microenvironment of the growing and maturing oocyte of the early and older embryo and thus may affect reproductive outcome. We recently reported that dietary‐induced hyperlipidaemic conditions can be harmful for embryo development and metabolism. However, to date, research results remain somewhat conflicting most probably due to differences in fat sources used, in diet and duration of supplementation and in experimental set‐up in general.     

Assisted Reproduction in Horses: What Can Be Learned from Assisted Reproduction in Cattle?

Researchers and practitioners of assisted reproduction in horses have borrowed heavily from similar bovine practices over the years. However, most procedures required species-specific experiments for optimization. Furthermore, the flow of information occurs in both directions; some procedures, for example, vitrification of embryos and intracytoplasmic sperm injection, were made efficacious in horses before cattle. The great advantage of research in cattle is the availability of large numbers of animals and embryos for testing hypotheses economically. Objectives of cattle breeding generally are more scientific than those concerning horses, and it is likely that much can be learned in the future from genetic tools being developed for cattle breeding. A genetic advantage of cattle breeding over horse breeding is the extremely large genetic and phenotypic databases of some breeds, which can be matched to genomic information.     

Heck cattle in the Oostvaardersplassen: risk for infectious diseases or not?

This article discusses risk analysis of infectious diseases in a cattle population. Heck cattle living in nature reserve 'De Oostvaardersplassen' were studied as an example of the risk analysis approach. Twenty-five adult cattle were tested for every infectious disease agent that the risk analysis indicated might be prevalent. All sampled cattle tested positive for Bovine Herpesvirus 1, whereas the prevalence of antibodies against other infectious disease agents was below the level that was assumed to be the threshold for spread of the disease to cattle in the surrounding areas. Risk management of infectious diseases was expressed in a so-called 'low-risk profile'. The risk of introduction or spread of infectious diseases was estimated to be very low as long as the population was kept strictly enclosed.     

Stretching Exercises for Horses: Are They Effective?

This article aims to present research in both animals and humans that support the use of stretching exercises in horses as a means of increasing range of motion, improving body flexibility and posture, and preventing injury by strengthening the supportive tissues. Too often veterinarians may overlook the importance of stretch exercises. This could partially be due to a lack of familiarity of what type of exercises to recommend, how to perform them, or where to obtain the desired information. Studies demonstrate the beneficial effects of stretching, warm-up, and temperature on the mechanical properties of muscle, potentially reducing the risk of strain injury to muscles. Evidence demonstrates that various approaches to conditioning that include warm-up and stretching along with other techniques such as strength training and proprioceptive training enhance performance and prevent certain types of injury. In addition, stretching of specific muscles and articulations for specific activities might enhance the effectiveness of these other pre-exercise activities, which is consistent with a multifactorial model for injury prevention. Stretches are either dynamic (having motion) or static (having no motion). Dynamic stretching involves moving parts of the body and gradually increasing reach, speed of movement, or both. It is controlled movement or swings that gently take the limb to the limits of range of motion. Static stretching consists of stretching a muscle (or group of muscles) to its farthest point and then maintaining or holding that position. Passive or relaxed and isometric stretching are both types of static stretches. Passive or relaxed is where a position is maintained by holding it with some other part of your body, or with the assistance of a partner or some other apparatus. This type of stretching is the most common type used with stretching exercises in horses as we control the motion and positioning desired. Slow, relaxed stretching is useful in relieving spasms in muscles that are healing after an injury. Relaxed stretching is also good for “cooling down” after a workout and helps reduce postworkout muscle fatigue and soreness. A case study and an example of a stretch exercise program and what to look for in a “how to” guide is also presented.     

Bad behavior or a physical problem? Rearing in a Dutch Warmblood mare

Behavior problems in horses are often thought to be due to the horse’s bad attitude, which commonly results in them being punished. However, when these cases are carefully worked up, there may be an underlying physical problem, and pain may play an important role. A 5-year-old Dutch Warmblood mare was presented for rearing and flipping over backward. The mare had been repeatedly examined by an equine veterinarian and a nonveterinarian equine dentist who found no abnormalities. Several different bits were tried, and side reins were used to keep her head down. The mare was whipped every time she reared. None of these measures helped. On presentation to our equine teaching hospital, no abnormalities were detected on routine physical examination. The behavior was observed when the mare was lunged; as soon as a small amount of tension was put on the lunge rein, the mare shook her head horizontally for approximately 1-2 seconds, reared, and flipped over onto her back. Neurological examination revealed that the mare was slow to resume a normal stance when her hind legs were placed in an abnormal position. Dental examination and endoscopy of the upper airways proved unremarkable. Radiography of the atlanto-occipital joint area revealed fractures of the first and second cervical vertebrae and fracture fragments, which are both suggestive for the presence of cervical instability and the possible presence of spinal cord compression. These suggestions were further supported by identification of delayed postural reflexes during neurological examination. The mare was deemed unfit for dressage and was successfully kept for breeding. Horses are frequently punished for “bad behavior.” These behaviors are frequently due to underlying physical problems and not a “nasty” horse. This case highlights the importance of careful history taking and a thorough veterinary examination with the use of further diagnostics (if necessary) when dealing with equine behavior problems.     

Equine Farm Operators: An Underserved Target Audience for Conservation Practice Outreach?

Equine farms account for an increasing proportion of land use in many areas of the United States. Despite this, equine farm operators have often been neglected by researchers and resource professionals when land management decisions are concerned and little is understood of this community's awareness and use of conservation practices. This study assessed the prevalence of conservation messages in equine-related trade magazines using content analysis. In-depth interviews were also conducted with equine farm operators to assess their understanding and use of conservation practices. Conservation-related material in equine media is relatively rare when compared with traditional livestock magazines. Equine and stable owners are generally motivated to protect on-farm resources but are not very aware of the off-farm effects of their operations. Several common livestock conservation practices are being used by many facilities, but the motivation for their use is not based on environmental concern, and operators are generally unaware of the environmental benefits of these practices. More outreach and education directed at equine farm operators is needed.