Tree growth-competition relationships in thinned Eucalyptus plantations vary with stand structure and site quality

Growth responses to thinning can vary with site quality and age, however, the direction of the response varies. An understanding of the mechanisms behind thinning responses could help forest managers optimise production as well as inform modellers and ecologists about the functioning of tree stands. Thinning was used to create a range of stand densities in eleven Eucalyptus plantation stands on seven sites in south-eastern Australia. Basal area periodic annual increment (PAI; cm² year^?1) of individual dominant and codominant trees was then related to competition, such that PAI = a + b ln(Competition). Competition was defined as the sum of the basal area of neighbouring trees within a radius of 6.5 m. The relative (%) and absolute (cm² year^?1) responses to competition were quantified using b, which was correlated with site quality and stand structure of unthinned stands. Stand structure was quantified using statistics or parameters that describe the diameter distribution for the given age, species and site, including skewness, the coefficient of variation and parameters of the Weibull probability distribution. Relative and absolute responses both increased with increasing site quality and in stands with more negatively skewed diameter distributions (higher proportion of larger trees) or lower coefficients of variation. Absolute thinning responses often increased with increasing size class, while relative thinning responses often decreased. Variables describing diameter distributions (size-class structure) were able to describe some of the variation in competition responses that site quality could not. This indicates why stands on similar site qualities but with different stand structures can have correspondingly different thinning responses. Stand structural variables may be more useful predictors of thinning responses in stands that experience large temporal changes in diameter distributions compared with site quality, which is a more static variable. Thus, knowledge about the development of diameter distributions might help to refine thinning regimes.     

Validation of an efficient visual method for estimating leaf area index in clonal Eucalyptus plantations

Leaf area index (LAI) is a key ecophysiological parameter in forest stands because it characterises the interface between atmospheric processes and plant physiology. Several indirect methods for estimating LAI have been developed. However, these methods have limitations that can affect the estimates. This study aimed to evaluate the accuracy and applicability of a visual method for estimating LAI in clonal Eucalyptus grandis × E. urophylla plantations and to compare it with hemispherical photography, ceptometer and LAI-2000^® estimates. Destructive sampling for direct determination of the actual LAI was performed in 22 plots at two geographical locations in Brazil. Actual LAI values were then used to develop a field guide with photographic images representing an LAI range of 1.0–5.0 m² m^?2 (leaf area/ground area). The visual LAI estimation guide was evaluated with 17 observers in the field. The average difference between actual LAI and visual LAI estimation was 12% and the absolute difference between the two methods was less than or equal to 0.5 m² m^?2 in 77% of plots. Pearson’s correlation coefficients were high between actual LAI and hemispherical photographs (0.8), visual estimation (0.93) and LAI-2000^® (0.99) and low for the ceptometer (0.18). However, absolute values differed among methods, with the average difference between the actual and estimated LAI of [12]% for visual estimation, 28% for the LAI-2000^®, 37% for the ceptometer and ?43% for hemispherical photographs. The LAI-2000^® and ceptometer overestimated LAI in all plots, whereas hemispherical photographs underestimated the values in all measurements, showing that these methods need calibration to be used. No differences were observed between actual LAI and visual estimates across stand ages of 2–8 years and LAI of 1.5–5.3 m² m^?2 (P > 0.05). The results show that visual estimation of LAI in Eucalyptus stands is a practical method that is unaffected by atmospheric characteristics and can be used on an operational scale.     

Mycosphaerella species occurring on Eucalyptus globulus and Eucalyptus nitens plantations of Tasmania,Australia

The genus Mycosphaerella Johanson contains many pathogens capable of causing a severe impact on the growth of susceptible eucalypt species. The lack of knowledge about which species are present in Tasmania and their potential risk to the plantation industry prompted this study into the Mycosphaerella species occurring on Eucalyptus globulus and Eucalyptus nitens plantations in Tasmania. A total of 36 plantation and five road verge sites of E. globulus and E. nitens were sampled. Five Mycosphaerella species and three species from associated anamorph genera were isolated and identified in Tasmania; Mycosphaerella nubilosa, Mycosphaerella cryptica, Mycosphaerella tasmaniensis, Mycosphaerella grandis, Mycosphaerella vespa, Coniothyrium ovatum, Sonderhenia eucalypticola and Sonderhenia eucalyptorum. The most frequently isolated species with the highest incidence and severity of infection were M. cryptica and M. nubilosa. These two species appear to have the greatest potential to damage juvenile eucalypt plantations in Tasmania. A link between Mycosphaerella vespa and Coniothyrium ovatum is described for the first time.     

Floral induction in Eucalyptus nitens

Eucalyptus nitens (Deane & Maiden) Maiden takes at least five years to initiate flower buds from seed and is an infrequent and light flowerer. Because this behavior constitutes a major impediment to breeding programs, we examined the mechanisms controlling floral induction in E. nitens, with the long-term aim of reducing generation time and increasing seed yield. Application of paclobutrazol reduced the concentration of endogenous gibberellic acid (GA) in apical tissue and enhanced the reproductive activity of grafted trees maintained outside over winter in Canberra, Australia. Grafts maintained in a warm greenhouse over winter did not produce flower buds, despite the paclobutrazol-induced reduction in GA concentration of the apical tissue. Exposing untreated grafts, which had been maintained over winter in a warm greenhouse, to low temperature the following spring reduced growth but did not induce flower bud production. Addition of GA(3) to paclobutrazol-treated grafts reduced the effect of paclobutrazol on reproductive activity.     

Water use in thinned loblolly pine plantations

Soil moisture and throughfall were monitored for two growing seasons under three thinning intensities: basal areas of 7.8 m²ha⁻¹, 12.6 m²ha⁻¹ and 26.6 m²ha⁻¹ (unthinned control) in an 11- to 12-year-old loblolly pine (Pinus taeda L.) plantation. The first year after thinning soil water decreased at a rate of 0.8 mm day⁻¹, 1.0 mm day⁻¹ and 1.4 mm day⁻¹, respectively, in the 7.8 m²ha⁻¹, 12.6 m²ha⁻¹, and 26.6 m²ha⁻¹ basal area plots between May and late August. The more rapid development of soil moisture deficits in the unthinned stand was owing to both greater soil moisture use and reduced throughfall. For the same time period in the second year, with below-normal rainfall, soil moisture deficits developed at a rate of 1.5, 1.5 and 1.7 mm day⁻¹ for the two heavily thinned and the unthinned treatments. Estimated growing season soil water use rates were 4.4 mm day⁻¹, 4.2 mm day⁻¹, and 4.0 mm day⁻¹, respectively for the 7.8 m²ha⁻¹, 12.6 m²ha⁻¹ and 26.6 m²ha⁻¹ basal area levels in Year 1. The second year after thinning water use rates for the same period were 2.7 mm day⁻¹, 2.6 mm day⁻¹, and 2.5 mm day⁻¹, respectively. The results of this study suggest that the capacity to manage available water in loblolly pine stands by thinning is more a function of reduced interception loss and increased throughfall than reduced water use and is also weather dependent. Growing seasons with low rainfall or only one or two large rainfall events will not permit much opportunity to manage soil moisture.     

Differences in stem respiration responses to temperature between balsam fir trees in thinned and unthinned stands

The change in stem respiration rates with change of temperature was significantly lower in a recently thinned balsam fir (Abies balsamea (L.) Mill.) stand than in an unthinned stand. A comparison of respiration measurements made in the morning with those made in the afternoon indicated that there was more variation among afternoon readings and greater responses to changes in temperature among morning readings. Lower respiration rates in the afternoon were more common in the thinned stand than in the unthinned stand.     

Shoot structure, leaf area index and productivity of evergreen conifer stands

For 12 conifer species, the maximum ratio of shoot to leaf silhouette area of shade-acclimated shoots was found to vary from 0.50 to 0.99. Maximum leaf area index (leaf area per unit ground area) of conifer stands varied from 3.5 to 20, and maximum mean annual increment varied by a factor of 2. Significant correlations were found between leaf silhouette area ratio of shade-acclimated shoots and the maximum leaf area index (R(2) = 0.84) and the maximum mean annual increment (R(2) = 0.93). These results support a hypothesis that species to species differences in the morphology of shade-adapted shoots strongly affect both the development of leaf area and the productivity of stands of evergreen conifers.     

Predicted leaf area growth and foliage efficiency of loblolly pine plantations

Foliage dynamics research is helpful for better understanding the process of forest production and improving silvicultural practice. However, the difficulty of measuring foliage amount has slowed down the research progress. Since leaf area of an individual tree can be reliably predicted from its diameter, growth and yield models that provide detailed information for each diameter class can be used to benefit foliage dynamics research. Simulation results from a growth and yield system for unthinned loblolly pine plantations indicated that foliage area increased with stand age, peaked between ages 36 and 51, and decreased after that. Volume growth increased with leaf area for young stands and decreased for older stands, whereas foliage efficiency consistently decreased with age. Better sites supported higher levels of leaf area index, volume growth, and foliage efficiency. Higher planting densities led to higher maximum leaf area indices and shorter time to reach that level. Initial density had no effect on foliage efficiency through time.     

Factors influencing the availability of nitrogen in thinned and unthinned Douglas-fir stands in the central Oregon Cascades

Soil N mineralized during 7-day anaerobic incubation at 40°C (‘available’ N) was compared at two soil depths and correlated to soil and site factors in Douglas-fir stands with different combinations of thinning and multinutrient fertilization. Available N expressed either on an area basis (kg ha⁻¹) or on a concentration basis (mg kg⁻¹) at the two depths did not vary significantly by stocking density, treatment, or density-treatment interaction. There was a significant difference between the soil depths, averaging 39 mg kg⁻¹ at 0–20 cm depth, and 20 mg kg⁻¹ at 20–40 cm depth. Available N was positively correlated with total soil N, exchangeable Ca, and adjusted aspect (the former two factors accounting for 46% of the total variation), and negatively with rock content and slope steepness. Stand density had no effect.     

史密斯桉、亮果桉种源选择

１９８６～１９９２年由澳大利亚提供史密斯桉种源１２个，亮果桉种源１７个，分别在保山、昆明、楚雄进行史密斯桉、亮果桉的种源选择试验。试验结果表明：史密斯桉、亮果桉存在种源差异；从生长量、生长稳定性、抗逆性、桉油含量等方面进行综合评定认为，史密斯桉１５５４４、１５０９２、１２１３１种源，亮果桉１２４０１、１３２８１、１４４４９、１６６３６、１６７５０种源是表现较好的种源，４～６年生史密斯桉优良种源，与直干桉对照相比，蓄积量的平均实际增益为５８％；而３～４年生亮果桉蓄积量的平均实际增益为７３％。史密斯桉含油量增益为５７．４％。试验选择出以上述两树种种源可在适宜地区推广。     

Physiology and anatomy of lenticel-like structures on leaves of Eucalyptus nitens and Eucalyptus globulus seedlings

Intumescences or abnormal, non-pathogenic, blister-like protuberant growths, form on Eucalyptus globulus Labill. and, to a much lesser extent, Eucalyptus nitens (Deane and Maiden) Maiden leaves when plants are grown in a high relative humidity environment. We examined the histology of intumescences and their effects on leaf photosynthetic processes. Intumescences were induced by placing E. globulus and E. nitens seedlings in a relative humidity of 80% in a greenhouse for 5 days. Symptomatic and asymptomatic leaves of plants with intumescence development were compared with leaves of control plants. Light-saturated carbon dioxide (CO(2)) assimilation (A(max)) and responses of CO(2) assimilation (A) to varying intercellular CO(2) partial pressure (C(i)) were measured. Symptomatic and asymptomatic leaf samples were fixed and sectioned and cellular structure was examined. Intumescences greatly reduced the photosynthetic capacity of E. globulus leaves and were associated with reduced electron transport rate and ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP) regeneration capacity. Tissue necrotization and cellular collapse of the palisade mesophyll and deposition of phenolic compounds in the affected areas, probably reduced light penetration to photosynthesizing cells as well as reducing the amount of photosynthesizing tissue. Photosynthetic capacity of E. nitens was unaffected. The intumescences resembled simple lenticels, both morphologically and developmentally. To our knowledge, this is the first time that lenticel-like structures developed in response to environmental conditions have been described on leaves.     

Modelling biomass and leaf area index in a sub-arctic Scandinavian mountain area

Estimates of biomass and leaf area index (LAI) are important variables in ecological and climate models. However, very little is known about the biomass and LAI of the vegetation in the Scandinavian mountain area. In this study, extensive field data consisting of diameter at breast height for 13?000 trees and height for 550 trees were collected. Furthermore, biomass and leaf area (LA) measurements for 46 mountain birch trees [Betula pubescens ssp. czerepanovii (Orlowa) Hämet-Ahti] and biomass and LA measurements for shrubs (e.g. Salix spp., Betula nana) at 36 sample plots were carried out. Multiplicative linear models for trees were fitted to tree biomass and LA measurements using basal area at breast height, height, crown diameter and diameter at stump height as explanatory variables. Additive linear models were fitted to shrub biomass and LAI measurements using coverage of shrubs, topographic variables and soil type as explanatory variables. The functions were then used to predict the biomass and LAI for trees and shrubs for the entire test area, which covers an area of 84 km² and is located at latitude 68° N. The mean total biomass estimates were 27?493 kg ha^?1 for the forest and 7650 kg ha^?1 for snow-protected heath and meadow vegetation. The LAIs were 2.06 and 0.52, respectively. For monitoring biomass and LAI in the Scandinavian mountain area, the functions could also be applied to data from traditional field-based inventories and the estimates might further be improved by combining the estimates from the test area with auxiliary information such as remote sensing images.     

Spatial and temporal variations in leaf area index, specific leaf area and leaf nitrogen of two co-occurring savanna tree species

Foliage growth, mass- and area-based leaf nitrogen concentrations (Nm and N a) and specific leaf area (SLA) were surveyed during a complete vegetation cycle for two co-occurring savanna tree species: Crossopteryx febrifuga (Afzel. ex G. Don) Benth. and Cussonia arborea A. Rich. The study was conducted in the natural reserve of Lamto, Ivory Coast, on isolated and clumped trees. Leaf flush occurred before the beginning of the rainy season. Maximum leaf area index (LAI), computed on a projected canopy basis for individual trees, was similar (mean of about 4) for both species. Seasonal courses of the ratio of actual to maximum LAI were similar for individuals of the same species, but differed between species. For C. febrifuga, clumped trees reached their maximum LAI before isolated trees. The LAI of C. arborea trees did not differ between clumped and isolated individuals, but maximum LAI was reached about 2 months later than for C. febrifuga. Leaf fall was associated with decreasing soil water content for C. arborea. For C. febrifuga, leaf fall started before the end of the rainy period and was independent of changes in soil water content. These features lead to a partial niche separation in time for light resource acquisition between the two species. Although Nm, N a and SLA decreased with time, SLA and N a decreased later in the vegetation cycle for C. arborea than for C. febrifuga. For both species, N a decreased and SLA increased with decreasing leaf irradiance within the canopy, although effects of light on leaf characteristics did not differ between isolated and clumped trees. Given relationships between N a and photosynthetic capacities previously reported for these species, our results show that C. arborea exhibits higher photosynthetic capacity than C. febrifuga during most of the vegetation cycle and at all irradiances.     

Overhead irrigation increased winter chilling and floral bud production in Eucalyptus nitens

Eucalyptus nitens requires a sufficiently cold winter to produce flower buds. In areas in South Africa where E. nitens commercial plantations as well as breeding and production seed orchards are located, winter chilling is often insufficient for floral bud initiation. Hence, under such conditions, E. nitens floral bud and seed crops are poor and inconsistent. The local industry is almost entirely dependent on paclobutrazol (PBZ) applications for encouraging flowering in E. nitens seed orchards. Between 2008 and 2010, an experiment was conducted to investigate the potential of overhead irrigation (sprinkling) as a means of supplementing winter chilling to improve floral bud production in E. nitens. The treatments included three levels of sprinkling (nil, 10 weeks and 16 weeks duration), two levels of PBZ (nil, 0.025 g a.i. per mm basal stem circumference) and two grafted clones (prolific flowerer and shy-flowerer). Sprinkling reduced E. nitens daytime bud temperatures by as much as 16.2 °C on warm, dry winter days. In 2009 (cold winter) and 2010 (warm winter), sprinkling increased chilling accumulation by 44% and 72% (nil versus maximum sprinkling), respectively. In 2009, in the absence of PBZ, sprinkling resulted in a higher percentage of trees of either clone producing umbels (flower buds) compared with the control. In the warmer 2010 winter, sprinkling again increased flowering, with the number of flowering shoots and umbels per tree being significantly higher than the control at p < 0.05. In both 2009 and 2010, PBZ showed a strong additive effect to winter chilling on E. nitens floral bud production. The E. nitens clone × chilling × PBZ flowering interaction was complex and warrants more detailed investigation in future. Overhead sprinkling offers a practical method of supplementing winter chilling and improving floral bud production in high-chill-requiring temperate eucalypt species such as E. nitens.     

Diseases on Eucalyptus species in Zimbabwean plantations and woodlots

Zimbabwe embarked on planting Eucalyptus species in the early 1900s. Based on a robust breeding programme, it has become a major source of seed for other countries in and outside Africa. Tree health surveys conducted on Eucalyptus in some east and southern African countries over the past two decades have revealed several important fungal diseases that were previously not known in the region, but little is known regarding these problems in Zimbabwe. The aim of this study was to identify important Eucalyptus diseases across Zimbabwe's agroclimatic regions. Morphological characteristics and DNA sequence data were used to identify pathogens collected to species level. Widespread stem canker diseases, caused by species belonging to the Botryosphaeriaceae and Teratosphaeriaceae, and leaf spot diseases caused by fungi in the Capnodiales, were identified. Armillaria root and stem rot was restricted to a single site in the Eastern Highlands. Fungi that could cause canker or blue stain of timber were isolated from recently harvested stumps and included species of Ceratocystis and Ophiostoma. This study is the first to identify Eucalyptus pathogens to species level in Zimbabwe and we report for the first time the presence of the stem canker pathogen T. gauchensis in southern Africa. The results will provide a foundation for the formulation of future disease management strategies in the country.     

Anatomical and histochemical defence responses induced in juvenile leaves of Eucalyptus globulus and Eucalyptus nitens by Mycosphaerella infection

The responses of juvenile leaves of two Eucalyptus species, with contrasting susceptibility to infection by Mycosphaerella leaf disease, were compared. The anatomical changes, accumulation of phenolics, suberin, lignin and anthocyanin and the retention of chlorophyll were studied in leaf lesions of varying developmental stages caused by species of Mycosphaerella. Enhanced resistance of Eucalyptus nitens in southern Australia was attributed to the formation of an effective lignified and suberized necrophylactic periderm, to restrict pathogen spread. Leaves of E. nitens contained isobilateral palisade which resulted in both abaxial and adaxial cell division and the initiation of a strong reinforced cellular zone from an early lesion stage. Eucalyptus globulus formed a slower, distorted necrophylactic periderm through hypertrophic changes to existing mesophyll and limited cell divisions of the single adaxial palisade layer. Deposits of lignin and suberin did not occur until later in lesion development, which were not effective in preventing further disease development. From this study it is hypothesized that tolerance of eucalypts to Mycosphaerella pathogens may be associated with constitutive mesophyll density.     

Patterns of longitudinal and tangential maturation stresses in Eucalyptus nitens plantation trees

Context

Tree orientation is controlled by asymmetric mechanical stresses set during wood maturation. The magnitude of maturation stress differs between longitudinal and tangential directions, and between normal and tension woods.

Aims

We aimed at evaluating patterns of maturation stress on eucalypt plantation trees and their relation with growth, with a focus on tangential stress evaluation.

Methods

Released maturation strains along longitudinal and tangential directions were measured around the circumference of 29 Eucalyptus nitens trees, including both straight and leaning trees.

Results

Most trees produced asymmetric patterns of longitudinal maturation strain, but more than half of the maturation strain variability occurred between trees. Many trees produced high longitudinal tensile stress all around their circumference. High longitudinal tensile stress was not systematically associated with the presence of gelatinous layer. The average magnitude of released longitudinal maturation strain was found negatively correlated to the growth rate. A methodology is proposed to ensure reliable evaluation of released maturation strain in both longitudinal and tangential directions. Tangential strain evaluated with this method was lower than previously reported.

Conclusion

The stress was always tensile along the longitudinal direction and compressive along the tangential direction, and their respective magnitude was positively correlated. This correlation does not result from a Poisson effect but may be related to the mechanism of maturation stress generation.     

湖南省邓恩桉与柳桉高产纤维材引种培育研究进展

中国大多数桉树资源主要集中在较为温暖的沿海地区.目前在湖南和江西等华南和中南省份较为冷凉的内陆地区,通过选择一些合适的耐寒桉树品种,种植了一些规模不大的桉树人工示范林,这些示范林显示出了较好的适应性与丰产性.这些较为冷凉的内陆地区有着立地条件较为优越的适合人工林发展的广大林地.对于较冷地区,尤其是湖南省来说,通过分析所...     

Genetic characterisation of a Eucalyptus nitens base breeding population in South Africa

The measurement and statistical analysis of data from eight Eucalyptus nitens trials, established in the summer rainfall forestry region of South Africa during the 1980s and 1990s, have enabled the characterisation of the Institute for Commercial Forestry Research's breeding population. Provenance testing showed that the more northerly New South Wales (Australia) Eucalyptus nitens provenances of Barren Mountain and Barrington Tops are distinctly better suited to the summer rainfall areas of South Africa than the southern New South Wales provenances and the Victorian provenance, Penny Saddle. Generally, the species was not badly affected by Coniothyrium canker. High type B genetic correlations for all site pairs, except one comparison, ranged from 0.75 to 0.99 for diameter at breast height (dbh), indicating very little or no genotype × environment interaction for dbh for the genotypes tested in this study. Narrow-sense heritability coefficients ranged from 0.01 to 0.34, indicating that the species generally exhibited sufficient breeding opportunity for improvement of diameter growth. High genetic correlations of greater than 0.90 between diameter measurements at 52 to 62 months after establishment and diameter measurements at 94 or 113 months were found, indicating that selections can be reliably made at five or six years. Predicted genetic gains were highest in the trials at Goedehoop and Arthur's Seat, with increases in dbh of 3.07 cm (17.1%) and 3.17 cm (20.7%), respectively, at full rotation.     

我国桉树人工林施肥研究进展

科学施肥是实现桉树人工林速生丰产的一个重要措施。本文从桉树人工林施肥研究的历史、桉树种植区的土壤肥力、施肥效应、营养诊断和平衡施肥等方面综述了桉树人工林施肥的研究进展,指出了目前研究中存在的问题和今后的研究方向,为我国桉树速生丰产林的可持续经营提供科学依据。