Exploring changes in world ruminant production systems

In the past 30 years world production of ruminant meat and milk has increased by about 40%, while the global area of grassland has increased by only 4%. This is because most of the increase in ruminant meat and milk production has been achieved by increasing the production in mixed and landless production systems and much less so in pastoral systems. Pastoral systems depend almost exclusively on grazing, while mixed and landless systems rely on a mix of concentrates (food crops) and roughage, consisting of grass, fodder crops, crop residues, and other sources of feedstuffs. A model was developed to describe these two aggregated production systems for different world regions, each having typical production characteristics, such as milk production per animal for dairy cattle, and off-take rates and carcass weights for non-dairy cattle, sheep and goats. The energy needed by the animals for the production of meat and milk is calculated on the basis of requirements for maintenance, grazing and labour, pregnancy, and lactation. We implemented the FAO Agriculture Towards 2030 projection for crop and livestock production and assumed that the past trend in the area of grassland will continue in the coming three decades. This assumption implies a rapid intensification of grassland management with a 33% increase in global grass consumption, which will only be possible with increasing fertilizer inputs, use of grass-clover mixtures and improved grassland management.     

Returns from small ruminant production in South West Nigeria

Dwarf goats and sheep are ubiquitous in the humid zone of West Africa, although only as a supplement to cash and food crop production. This paper presents estimates of the returns obtained from these small ruminants under traditional production systems. Returns are, on average, high, but variable, especially in view of disease risks. Apart from disease control measures to reduce mortality, improved nutrition is needed for intensifying production. At current levels of management neither pasture production nor housing and hand-feeding are likely to yield increased returns. Alley farming, a system of intercropping with shrub species and the feeding of shrub trimmings to small ruminants, seems a promising alternative.     

Water production function of sorghum for Northeast Brazil

The results of an experiment to determine the water production function of sorghum for Northeast Brazilian conditions are reported. The experiment was designed in two random blocks consisting of four growth stages for irrigation deficit and four levels of nitrogen.The crop response to water was found to be of quadratic nature. Regression coefficients were developed for each nitrogen and growth stage treatment between water use and grain yields. The most critical stage was found to be the vegetative stage followed by flowering and grain formation stages.The yield response factors as according to Doorenbos and Kassam were found to vary drastically not only with different nitrogen levels and crop growth stages but also with different irrigation levels. A modified linear equation has been suggested. The coefficients of this modified equation have been determined for all four stages and for the four nitrogen levels for sorghum.The highest average water use efficiency of 109.3 kg ha⁻¹ cm⁻¹ of water and highest obtainable grain yield of 4.92 t/ha was found to be at 425 mm of water use and 45 kg/ha of nitrogen.The crop coefficients (K_c) to compute crop water use from pan evaporation vary between 0.4 and 0.81 with an average for the whole growing period of 0.75.     

Remote sensing for irrigation water management in the semi-arid Northeast of Brazil

Northeast of Brazil is a semi-arid region, where water is a key strategic resource in the development of all sectors of the economy. Irrigation agriculture is the main water consumer in this region. Therefore, policy directives are calling for tools to aid operational monitoring in planning, control and charging of irrigation water. Using Landsat imagery, this study evaluates the utility of a process that measures the level of water use in an irrigated area of the state of Ceará. The experiment, which models evapotranspiration (ET), was carried out within the Jaguaribe-Apodi irrigation scheme (DIJA) during two months of the agricultural season. The ET was estimated with the model Mapping Evapotranspiration at High Resolution and with Internalized Calibration (METRIC). The model uses the residual of the energy balance equation to estimate ET for each pixel in the image. The results of the estimates were validated using measurements of ET from a micrometeorological tower installed within a banana plantation located near the irrigation scheme. After evaluating the ET estimates, the average fraction of depleted water for a set of agricultural parcels combined with the monthly ET mapping estimates by METRIC provided a method for predicting the total water use in DIJA for the study period. The results were then compared against the monthly accumulated flow rates for all the pumping stations provided by the district manager. Finally, this work discusses the potential use of the model as an alternative method to calculate water consumption in irrigated agriculture and the implications for water resource management in irrigated perimeters.     

The small ruminant market system in Indonesia: A review

Sheep and goats in Indonesia are important to the cash economy of the smallholder. During the last decades the local market system for small ruminants has changed little as various types of middlemen are dominating the marketplaces. Generally, these middlemen (village money collectors and various types of broker) are numerous and provide farmers with various ‘contracts’. They play no role in the supply of farm inputs.A review of trends in interprovincial trade, prices and market margins shows that the local markets have become integrated in a national market system. As the demand projections for red meat are strong, this integration is expected to continue.The distribution system for farm inputs for small ruminant production is barely developed. It is unlikely that the overlapping of input and output delivery (e.g. vertical integration) will occur in the near future. This implies a constraint to the introduction of new technologies.     

Comparing water management in rice-wheat production systems in Haryana, India and Punjab, Pakistan

The intensive irrigated rice-wheat systems in the northwest Indo-Gangetic Plains of South Asia are built on a long tradition of canal irrigation and the more recent advent of tubewells. Findings from farm surveys are used to examine water management and water productivity in the rice-wheat belt of India's Haryana State and Pakistan's Punjab province. Attributes of the irrigation sources help explain the widespread interest in groundwater use and the relative demise of canal water use. In each area groundwater now is the main irrigation source, used either solely or in conjunction with surface water. The ownership of tubewells is near universal among the surveyed farms, whereas conjunctive water use is more widespread during the monsoon season, among better endowed farmers and in the Pakistan Punjab. In Pakistan Punjab farmers primarily rely on diesel powered tubewells whereas Haryana farmers mainly use relatively cheaper electric power. Water productivity indicators for rice are markedly lower than those for wheat—largely reflecting significantly higher water inputs in paddy cultivation—but also vary between the study areas and by the prevailing water use, reflecting the limited incentives for farmers to use water wisely. A combination of technological, land use and market based approaches is likely to be most effective in achieving sustainable water management in these intensive cereal systems.     

Sheep and goats,men and women: Household relations and small ruminant development in southwest Nigeria

Small ruminant production systems are described for the humid areas of southern Nigeria. Differences in ownership patterns between men and women are detailed and the unique nature of small ruminants among agricultural resources is emphasized. Development paths that maintain small ruminants in their positions as minor enterprises in existing farming systems are delineated, and the implications of these models discussed in the light of intra-household processes. Alternative models are reviewed and compared.     

Exploring the link between farmers' objectives and the phenomenon of pasture degradation in the beef production systems of Central Brazil

In Central Brazil, half the area under sown pasture suffers from the phenomenon of pasture degradation; overgrazing is believed to be the main cause. Farmers' objectives and their links to the practice of overgrazing have been explored to obtain a better understanding of the decisions related to the setting of the stocking rate. A survey of beef cattle farmers was carried out, preceded by an exploratory poll of experts on such production systems. The method of paired comparisons was used for eliciting and analysing farmers' objectives. ‘Intergenerational transfer’ and ‘cattle ownership’ are the most dominant objectives. Because cattle ownership is implicitly included in the assets involved in intergenerational transfer, possessing cattle assumes an outstanding importance in the hierarchy of farmers' objectives. These findings elucidate the paradox of overgrazing and provide a basis for treating the perception on the influence of objectives on the degradation phenomenon from being a conjecture to that of an empirically valid hypothesis. They also suggest the need for incorporating the objective ‘maximise the number of cattle owned’ in the analysis and modelling of stocking rate decisions.     

Simulation of agroforestry systems with sugarcane in Piracicaba,Brazil

Sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum) occupies large areas of tropical regions as a single crop, and there is a lack of research on its cultivation in agroforestry systems (AFS). Thus, the use of simulation models to investigate its potentialities and restrictions is an important phase of evaluation. The Water, Nutrient and Light Capture in Agroforestry Systems (WaNuLCAS) model was used to investigate long-term biophysical interactions and system performance of sugarcane–rubber (Hevea brasiliensis) and sugarcane–eucalyptus (Eucalyptus grandis) alley cropping. Each system was simulated for 20 years in two soil types of Piracicaba, Brazil. The effects of light and soil water on plant growth were evaluated. Outputs of the mature phase of the system were compared to results of on-farm sugarcane-tree trials. Simulations showed a strong competition in the AFS and that light and soil water are limiting factors. Competition for these resources increased as the trees grew and it depended on tree biological characteristics and management of the systems. WaNuLCAS was an useful tool to speculate about the systems, to identify limiting factors, qualitative tendencies, and management strategies, but it presented limitations to quantitative analysis.     

Unravelling the rationale of `overgrazing' and stocking rates in the beef production systems of Central Brazil using a bi-criteria compromise programming model

In Central Brazil, the long-term sustainability of beef cattle systems is under threat over vast tracts of farming areas, as more than half of the 50 million hectares of sown pastures are suffering from degradation. Overgrazing practised to maintain high stocking rates is regarded as one of the main causes. High stocking rates are deliberate and crucial decisions taken by the farmers, which appear paradoxical, even irrational given the state of knowledge regarding the consequences of overgrazing. The phenomenon however appears inextricably linked with the objectives that farmers hold. In this research those objectives were elicited first and from their ranking two, `asset value of cattle (representing cattle ownership)' and `present value of economic returns', were chosen to develop an original bi-criteria Compromise Programming model to test various hypotheses postulated to explain the overgrazing behaviour. As part of the model a pasture productivity index is derived to estimate the pasture recovery cost. Different scenarios based on farmers' attitudes towards overgrazing, pasture costs and capital availability were analysed. The results of the model runs show that benefits from holding more cattle can outweigh the increased pasture recovery and maintenance costs. This result undermines the hypothesis that farmers practise overgrazing because they are unaware or uncaring about overgrazing costs. An appropriate approach to the problem of pasture degradation requires information on the economics, and its interplay with farmers' objectives, for a wide range of pasture recovery and maintenance methods. Seen within the context of farmers' objectives, some level of overgrazing appears rational. Advocacy of the simple `no overgrazing' rule is an insufficient strategy to maintain the long-term sustainability of the beef production systems in Central Brazil.     

Simulating differences in net returns from beef production under alternative forage systems and management practices

A biological simulation model and a linear programming model were interfaced to determine production efficiencies and the optimal carrying capacity of a cow-calf producer in East Texas and to compare net returns to the model farm, given alternative tame forage systems and management practices. Experimental data both on forage systems and on livestock were used to verify and validate the simulated herds. The results showed that (1) of the three tame forage systems analyzed, warm-season perennial forages provided a relatively higher carrying capacity/ha, whereas a mix of both warm- and cool-season forages that allows year-round grazing gave relatively higher net returns/ha to management; (2) nutritional stress during winter months decreased animal performance proportionately more than it decreased feed costs; and (3) although spring-calving herds included more animals than corresponding fall-calving herds on the same land area, fall-calving herds produced more liveweight sales and generally higher net returns.     

规范和加强农业产业化经营项目管理工作的思考

随着国家农业综合开发政策的调整,农业产业化经营项目的扶持方式、类型和管理模式都发生了一定变化,赋予项目单位和项目管理单位的责任越来越大。因此．我们必须规范和加强产业化经营项目的管理工作,具体抓好产业化经营项目的选项立项这一关键和项目组织实施这一重点。     

Productivity and soil fertility relationships in rice production systems,Bangladesh

This paper presents an econometric analysis of the influence of soil fertility status on productivity and resource use in rice production utilizing survey data from 21 villages in three agro-ecological regions of Bangladesh. Detailed crop husbandry input–output data were collected from 380 paddy rice (Oryza sativa) farmers. Data collected included fertilizer, pesticide, labour, animal power services, irrigation, farm capital assets and rice yield. The soil fertility status in each region was determined by analysis of soil organic carbon, available nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium concentration. Analysis was based on a profit function, where the selected soil fertility parameters were incorporated as yield controlling variables. Results revealed that soil fertility has a significant influence on both productivity and farmers’ resource allocation decisions. Output supply was significantly higher in fertile regions and input use was significantly lower. This observation indicates that in policy terms technological initiatives should be targeted at measures to identify areas of lower soil fertility so that inherent soil-based productivity restrictions can be minimized. In part this will be facilitated by the transfer of indigenous knowledge from farmers in higher productivity areas, thus increasing rice production and raising the competitiveness of Bangladeshi rice farmers.     

小企业管理的特点及促进对策的探讨

小企业管理是企业的管理者根据自身的特点,运用一定的手段方法来协调组织成员的活动,使其与管理者一起高效地实现小企业发展目标的活动过程。本文从小企业管理的特点、作用及存在的问题进行了分析与探讨。     

Characteristics and economic viability of milk production in the smallholder farming systems in The Gambia

Domestic milk production has been for a long time hindered by many factors including lack of interest from decision makers, distorted economic policy and biotechnical constraints. For the last 20 years, many developing countries have been attempting to develop the domestic milk production sector. However, research on the basic realities and the viability status of enterprises within this sector remain largely unproved in many developing countries. This study focuses on the characteristic of smallholder milk producers in The Gambia. Data were collected from 90 smallholder farm households to characterise milk producers and evaluate the profitability and viability status of this activity. Based on current typology of farms and gross margin analyses at farm level, the study identified two resource-based types of smallholder farms. The current milk production system is surely viable. Constraints to increased productivity include lack of improved technology at farm level and weak institutional support. Despite the low viability status, it is shown that milk production generates reliable incomes, which could be a departure for most farmers to intensify farming systems, particularly in areas where no loan schemes exist for purchasing agricultural inputs.     

生产过程中的物流控制管理系统

1　前言我厂是采用熔模铸造工艺生产精铸件 ,年产量最高可超过 2 0 0 0t ,品种有 10 0 0余种。生产的精铸件为多批次、多工序 ,且生产流程比较长。以前的生产计划和统计工作都由手工作业 ,要进行统计的原始数据多且乱 ,可供利用、分析的信息往往难以及时统计出来。要想获取某一个品种在各工序的准确数据 ,时效性常常不能保证 ,而且零件从投入到成品入库 ,这中间是无序、无控的 ,中间损失不易掌握。经常是急要的零件不能按时入库 ,不需要该零件时又批量过来 ,造成库存积压 ,进而可能形成呆货。为了解决动态性、时效性问题 ,我们根据生产情况…     

Ex-ante economic analysis of alternative mulch-based management systems for sustainable plantain production in Southeastern Nigeria

Due to rapid loss of soil fertility in traditional cropping systems and subsequent yield decline, plantain fields in Southeastern Nigeria are usually reverted to fallow after three years. This study investigates the potential of mulch-based systems for long term plantain production: alley cropping with Dactyladenia barteri and natural bush, and a cut-and-carry technique with Pennisetum purpureum. Model results simulate yields decline observed under traditional cropping systems due to a decrease in soil fertility. The adoption of mulch-based technologies is conditioned by capital availability. However, when adequate capital is available, mulch-based systems are quite profitable. Under baseline conditions, the alley cropping system with natural bush outperforms the other two improved technologies with a 154% and 72% increase in net returns over continuous and shifting traditional systems, respectively. The traditional system had the worst performance without fertilizer use. A sensitivity analysis shows that the increase in net return due to fertilizer in the alley cropping and traditional systems is at least 25%. This analysis indicates that credit programs that reach small farmers and land reform that gives them secure title are essential to widespread adoption of mulch-based plantain systems.     

Smallholder dairy production and markets: A comparison of production systems in Zambia,Kenya and Sri Lanka

Three smallholder dairy production systems in Zambia, Sri Lanka and Kenya are analysed and compared. The focus is on the relationships between the animal production system, the farm household system, and the institutional environment. Attention is given to the valuation of marketed and non-marketed products and the intangible benefits of livestock in insurance, financing and status display. The comprehensive and comparative analysis of the production systems shows the direct relationship between type and intensity of dairy production and the presence or absence of markets for milk and other products, services and employment. The generally unobserved income components resulting from products other than milk and from the intangible benefits prove to be a substantial proportion of the total income in all three systems. The comprehensive perspective on the dairy production system results in policy suggestions that include institutional linkages.     

A participatory, farming systems approach to improving Bali cattle production in the smallholder crop-livestock systems of Eastern Indonesia

Bali cattle (Bos javanicus) account for about one quarter of the total cattle population in Indonesia and are particularly important in the smallholder farming enterprises of the eastern islands. The population of Bali cattle is declining in most areas of Eastern Indonesia because demand for beef cattle exceeds the local capacity to supply these animals. Indonesian agencies recognise that new strategies are required to improve the productivity of Bali cattle and to address major constraints relating to animal husbandry and nutrition. To date, the adoption of cattle improvement technologies has been historically slow in Indonesia, as is the case elsewhere.This paper reports on key findings from a long-term study conducted between 2001 and 2009 with smallholder households from six villages in South Sulawesi and Central Lombok, to develop and test an approach for evaluating and increasing the adoption of cattle and forage improvement technologies. The approach is based on the principles of farming systems and participatory research and involved four main steps; (1) benchmarking the current farming system; (2) identifying constraints to cattle production and strategies to address them; (3) desktop modelling of the production and economic impacts of selected strategies; and (4) on-farm testing of the most promising strategies with 30 participant smallholder households.The approach was found to be successful based on: (1) sustained adoption of a package of best-bet technologies by the 30 participating households; (2) evidence of positive production, social and economic impacts; and (3) significant diffusion of the cattle improvement technologies to other households in the project regions.