A review of approaches to assessing equine welfare

Veterinary surgeons are required to assess an animal's welfare in a range of different circumstances in the course of their daily work. These assessments may relate to the long‐term welfare of an individual animal under their care, or the current welfare of a population of animals that are unfamiliar to them as individuals. The welfare assessment made may subsequently have implications for the treatment that an animal receives or for the decision of whether or not an animal should remain in its current home. Yet welfare assessment is not straightforward. Here we review the challenges that welfare assessment presents and review the tools currently available to meet them. Lastly, we look towards the future of equine welfare assessment, with examples of current research to develop tools and optimise welfare assessment.     

Pack wounds of donkeys and mules in the Northern High Atlas and lowlands of Morocco

Reasons for performing study: Wounds are one of the primary welfare concerns of working equids and are often related to harness or load‐bearing packs. Objectives: To identify and quantify factors associated with the presence of pack wounds in donkeys and mules working in the wood trade in the Midelt (Northern High Atlas) region of Morocco, and to compare wounds of these donkeys and mules to those working in other trades. Methods: The study population comprised equids working in the Midelt region involved in the wood trade. Comparison populations were comprised of equids working in other trades, in the same region and in Khemmiset region (lowlands of Central Morocco). Wounds were numbered and scored according to their severity. Questionnaires were used to gather data from owners, and objective data regarding the animal, berdaa (back‐pack) and load were collected. Data were analysed using multilevel uniand multivariable regression models to allow for clustering of wound sites within an equid. Results: Analysis showed an overall pack wound prevalence of 54% (n = 80/147). The most common site was the withers. Equids working in the wood trade were at increased risk of suffering pack wounds. Equids in the lowland study population were at increased risk of developing pack wounds, and donkeys were at increased risk of suffering pack wounds compared to mules both overall and within the wood trade. Other factors affecting the prevalence of wounds included the cleanliness of the berdaa and the frequency and distances of work imposed on the equid. Conclusion: Pack wounds in donkeys and mules are common in the 2 study regions of Morocco and appear to be associated with work factors including the trade the equids work in, the frequency and distances of work imposed and cleanliness of the pack. Donkeys are more susceptible than mules to developing pack wounds. Potential relevance: These results allow recommendations to be made to owners of equids that may decrease the prevalence of wounds and, therefore, improve welfare and working capability of these equids. Research is required to identify reasons for regional difference in prevalence of pack wounds in equids not working in the wood trade.     

浅谈实验动物福利问题

动物福利问题形式多样,涉及科学进步和社会发展的多个层次。本文简要阐述了动物福利的由来、国内外动物福利情况、动物福利的3R理论及动物福利发展的必然趋势。     

Seminal parameters and field fertility of cryopreserved donkey jack semen after insemination of horse mares

Reasons for performing study: As mule production is often concentrated in remote areas of the world, a simplified semen cryopreservation protocol is required. Aim: To compare the seminal parameters of cryopreserved donkey semen in lactose‐EDTA and lactose‐yolk extenders and the fertility rates on horse mares. Methods: Trial 1: Sperm total and progressive motility, vigour (scale 0–5), morphology (major and minor defects) and plasma membrane integrity (HOST) were evaluated in 25 ejaculates from 5 donkey jacks immediately after collection (raw), after chilling to 5°C (chilled) and after freezing/thawing. The semen was mixed with skimmed‐milk extender, centrifuged, and then re‐suspended in lactose‐EDTA or lactose‐yolk extender. Semen was loaded into 0.5 ml straws and chilled to 5°C for 1 h, after which samples were either evaluated (chilled semen) or placed above liquid nitrogen for 20 min prior to immersion. Seminal parameters were evaluated by ANOVA and Tukey's test. Trial 2: Cryopreserved semen from 3 males was used to inseminate 53 mares at 60 oestrous cycles randomly assigned to lactose‐yolk (n = 30 cycles) or lactose‐EDTA (n = 30 cycles) extenders. Pregnancy diagnosis was performed 15 and 25 days post ovulation. The pregnancy rates were compared using Chi‐squared tests. Results: Trial 1: No significant differences were evident in any seminal parameters between extenders after either chilling or cryopreservation. Total and progressive motility were significantly (P<0.05) lower in cryopreserved semen than raw and chilled semen for both extenders. Trial 2: Pregnancy rates did not significantly differ between extenders (lactose‐EDTA extender 53.33 and 43.33%; lactose‐yolk 50.0 and 46.66% for Days 15 and 25 post ovulation, respectively). Conclusions: Cryopreservation of donkey semen using the simplified lactose‐yolk extender resulted in similar seminal parameters and fertility rates when compared to lactose‐EDTA extender. Potential relevance: Lactose‐yolk extender may be advocated as a simple, easy to prepare extender, for use in geographically isolated enterprises producing mules throughout the world.     

Common helminth infections of donkeys and their control in temperate regions

Roundworms and flatworms that affect donkeys can cause disease. All common helminth parasites that affect horses also infect donkeys, so animals that co‐graze can act as a source of infection for either species. Of the gastrointestinal nematodes, those belonging to the cyathostomin (small strongyle) group are the most problematic in UK donkeys. Most grazing animals are exposed to these parasites and some animals will be infected all of their lives. Control is threatened by anthelmintic resistance: resistance to all 3 available anthelmintic classes has now been recorded in UK donkeys. The lungworm, Dictyocaulus arnfieldi, is also problematical, particularly when donkeys co‐graze with horses. Mature horses are not permissive hosts to the full life cycle of this parasite, but develop clinical signs on infection. In contrast, donkeys are permissive hosts without displaying overt clinical signs and act as a source of infection to co‐grazing horses. Donkeys are also susceptible to the fluke, Fasciola hepatica. This flatworm can be transmitted, via snails and the environment, from ruminants. As with cyathostomins, anthelmintic resistance is increasing in fluke populations in the UK. A number of the anthelmintic products available for horses do not have a licence for use in donkeys, and this complicates the design of parasite control programmes. As no new equine anthelmintic classes appear to be near market, it is important that the efficacy of currently effective drugs is maintained. It is important that strategies are used that attempt to preserve anthelmintic efficacy. These strategies should be based on the concept that the proportion of worms in a population not exposed to anthelmintic at each treatment act as a source of ‘refugia’. The latter is an important factor in the rate at which resistance develops. Thus, it is imperative that parasite control programmes take into account the need to balance therapy to control helminth‐associated disease with the requirement to preserve anthelmintic effectiveness.     

The nasolacrimal duct of the mule: Anatomy and clinical considerations

This study investigated the location of the nasolacrimal orifice (NLO) and course of the nasolacrimal duct in the mule using visual examination, gross dissection and computed tomography (dacryocystography [CT‐DCG]) and concluded that the location of the NLO is distinct from that described for horses and donkeys and is easily located, by visual examination alone, within the internal cutaneous tissue of the lateral wall of the external nares. The course of the nasolacrimal duct caudal to the nasal vestibule is similar to that of the horse.     

Strategies for the management of donkey jacks in intensive breeding systems

Donkeys are bred throughout the world and often play an important role in agriculture. They are also bred to produce mules. Traditionally, jacks are considered challenging to breed in domestic conditions, whether for natural breeding or semen collection using either jennies or mares. The donkey's natural sexual behaviour significantly differs from that of other domestic animals. This presents challenges for in‐hand donkey breeding, particularly on mule studs where normally only jacks and mares are kept for breeding. This article describes some of the authors' observations on sexual behaviour in donkeys and practical experience of some of the strategies employed to apply this knowledge to breeding management, in order to improve the success of using donkeys for both natural service and semen collection.     

The range and prevalence of pathological abnormalities associated with lameness in working horses from developing countries

Reasons for performing study: Lameness is highly prevalent in working horses, but published reports on the associated pathological abnormalities are lacking. With over 42 million horses in developing countries and the majority used for work, lameness has major welfare implications. Objectives: To describe the range and prevalence of pathological abnormalities associated with lameness in working horses. Methods: A standard lameness assessment was adapted for field use in working equids. Data on pathological abnormalities and pain responses in the feet, limbs and spine were collected through observation, palpation, manipulations and gait assessment in working horses from India (n = 110) and Pakistan (n = 117). Lameness at the walk was scored on a scale of 0–4 (sound‐nonweightbearing). Results: All horses examined were lame. Overall, 98% showed a gait abnormality in all 4 limbs and 87% had at least one limb scoring 3 or 4 on the lameness scale. Multiple pathological abnormalities within each limb were associated with lameness, with similar results in both countries. Chronic foot pathology was seen in every horse; 94% horses showed signs of chronic joint disease; 83% had digital flexor tendonitis in at least one limb. Lameness and pathological abnormalities were associated with specific pain responses in the feet, limbs and spine. Conclusions: The extremely high prevalence of multilimb lameness and its association with pain is of great concern. The multiple pathological abnormalities present in working horses makes lameness complex to address. Potential relevance: The results of this detailed study of lameness should facilitate the identification of risk factors and the implementation of interventions to reduce the prevalence of lameness in working equids.     

浅谈动物福利

畜产品安全引起人们从另一个角度对动物福利的关注,片面地追求GDP和人的福利,忽略甚至否定动物福利的必要性,最终结果是危害人类自身的健康。保护动物福利可以提高畜产品的品质,保证食品安全。草地农业系统为动物福利提供了生态系统基础。在实现动物福利时,要结合国情把握好“度”。国内外动物福利的研究有一定区别,因时代局限性和不同步性,动物福利发展受到多因素的影响。我国制订动物福利法刻不容缓,可以通过草畜耦合、完善草地农业系统,提高动物福利的社会承认度,全面实现动物福利。     

农场动物福利的评估

畜牧业中的动物福利问题越来越为人们所关注,评估动物福利是提高畜禽福利的基础。行为是评价动物福利最容易理解和最通常使用的指标,特别是异常行为的出现。应激相关生理表征也说明动物处于不适环境。但福利评估是一个复杂而棘手的问题,其他很多指标也可用于福利评估,特别是情感状态。论文较为全面地介绍了动物福利常用的评估指标和新的评估手段。     

Post mortem survey of dental disorders in 349 donkeys from an aged population (2005-2006). Part 1: prevalence of specific dental disorders

REASON FOR PERFORMING STUDY: Donkey dental disorders are being recognised with increased frequency worldwide and have important welfare implications; however, no detailed investigations of dental disorders in donkeys appear to have been published. OBJECTIVES: To determine the prevalence of specified dental disorders in donkeys by performing a prospective post mortem study on donkeys that were subjected to euthanasia or died for other reasons at the Donkey Sanctuary, UK. METHODS: Post mortem examinations were performed on 349 donkeys over an 18 month period, 2005-2006. The presence and extent of specified dental disorders were recorded and these data analysed to determine their prevalence and common locations. RESULTS: A high prevalence (93%) of disorders was noted in the population with a median age of 31 years. In particular, cheek teeth diastemata (85% prevalence) were very common, often associated with advanced periodontal disease. Other disorders observed included missing teeth (in 55.6% of donkeys), displaced teeth (43%), worn teeth (34%), local overgrowths (15%), focal sharp overgrowths (3%) and dental-related soft tissue injuries (8%). CONCLUSIONS AND POTENTIAL RELEVANCE: Aged donkeys have a high prevalence of significant dental disease, especially cheek teeth diastemata. These findings highlight the importance of routine dental examinations and prophylactic dental treatments to improve the dental health and welfare of donkeys.     

基于Label-free技术比较马和驴血清蛋白质组分差异

旨在探究马和驴血清蛋白质生物学特征,为马属动物种间生理特征比较和健康保障提供理论依据。本研究选取辽宁省大连市某集约化养殖场的9匹蒙古马和9头辽西驴,雌性,年龄4~10岁,均处于正常发情周期的间情期,健康无病、精神状态及采食状况良好,分别提供相同的饲养条件。采集马和驴各9份血清样品分别随机分成3组,每组内的3份血清样品均匀混合成1个生物学重复,各获得3个生物学重复的血清样品。利用Label-free蛋白质组学技术及生物信息学方法对马和驴的血清蛋白质组分进行比较研究,提取血清蛋白质,再对蛋白质进行酶解,液相色谱-串联质谱（LC-MS/MS）进行蛋白质组分分析,数据库检索分析马和驴血清样品中蛋白质表达情况,并应用生物信息学方法筛选马和驴血清差异关键调控蛋白质。结果显示,本研究共鉴定出361种蛋白质,其中,马血清中表达288种蛋白质,分子量范围为1.52~511.24 ku;驴血清中表达244种蛋白质,分子量范围为1.53~611.47 ku;共获得231种显著差异表达蛋白质（差异倍数≥1.5,P≤0.05）。差异表达蛋白质主要参与蛋白质激活、补体激活、免疫应答、凝血和脂蛋白氧化调控等生物学过程。显著富集的KEGG通路为补体和凝血级联,吞噬体,内质网蛋白质加工,抗原加工递呈,甘氨酸、丝氨酸和苏氨酸的代谢,癌症蛋白多糖等。通过差异蛋白互作分析显示,差异表达蛋白质紧密相连富集最为显著的功能模块主要为代谢途径、补体和凝血级联、吞噬体,HSP90AA1、HSPA8、APOD、APOM、SERPING1、MASP1、CALR、TUBA1B、TUBB等处在关系互作网的重要节点。马和驴在生理条件下的血清蛋白质组成特征存在一定差异,该研究为进一步揭示马属动物种间生理特征差异和有效保障健康提供数据支撑。     

Adverse impact of industrial animal agriculture on the health and welfare of farmed animals

Industrial animal agriculture is grounded in the concept of maximizing productivity and profit. Selective breeding for maximum productivity in one characteristic of the animal (e.g. milk yield in cows, or breast meat in broiler chickens) has resulted in genotypes and phenotypes that may predispose the animals to poor health and welfare. The conditions in which these individuals are kept may also frustrate many inherited behaviors that they are strongly motivated to perform. In order to curb the resulting harmful aberrant behaviors, such as feather‐pecking in chickens, we sometimes resort to mutilating the animals. In many places chickens are routinely de‐beaked by means of a hot metal guillotine. Compassion in World Farming (an international organization that promotes the humane treatment of farm animals) believes that it is unethical to treat sentient beings in such ways. We have a duty to respect farm animals' sentience by providing them with housing conditions that take their needs and wants into account, and by reverting to the use of dual‐purpose, slower‐growing breeds that have the potential for good welfare. Alternatives to current farming practices are available, and we owe it to the animals, and to our consciences, to pursue them.     

Undesired behaviour in horses: A review of their development,prevention, management and association with welfare

Undesired behaviours are a common problem amongst leisure and sporting horses in the UK and have a significant impact on the work of equine practitioners. In most cases, behaviours considered aberrant by owners are normal responses for their horses. Behaviours perceived as ‘naughtiness’ may in fact signify direct actions to avoid pain‐ or fear‐inducing stimuli. Examples that practitioners might deal with include trailer loading problems, avoidance of having saddlery equipment applied or reluctance to leave the yard. Even where no evidence of physical problems or pain can be detected, avoidance behaviours may reflect learnt responses that previously led to success in evading unpleasant consequences. Because owners often misunderstand the reason for such behaviours to develop in their horses, attempts at resolution often involve suppression or punishment based approaches. Although repeated subjugation of undesirable responses may ultimately appear to resolve the overt behavioural problem in some cases, in many others it can lead to a worsening of the problem, the development of alternative avoidance strategies or the horse learning that escaping the source of its pain or anxiety is impossible and ceasing to respond. Some horses develop abnormal or repetitive behaviours, which are not in the ‘normal’ behavioural repertoire. These stereotypic behaviours, sometimes termed ‘vices’, can indicate strategies to cope with a suboptimal environment. Indeed, their performance may serve to improve the situation for the animal. Attempts to suppress or prevent horses showing stereotypies, therefore, will generally exacerbate the underlying welfare problem. When dealing with either stereotypies or avoidance behaviours, it is important to recognise the role of learning in their development and maintenance. Resolution involves both understanding the underlying motivation for showing the behaviour and how it has become reinforced and established over time, for each individual case. The use of environmental change and/or behavioural modification techniques that are both successful and welfare compatible, are important in dealing with undesired behaviour in horses and selection of suitable professionals for referral an important responsibility for the equine practitioner.     

养殖企业从业人员“动物福利”社会态度研究

1 525份有效问卷的调查表明,中国畜牧行业大多数从业人员对动物福利有基本的认知。如75.4%的从业人员听说过动物福利,76.5%的从业人员赞成就动物福利立法,强迫生产者为猪鸡提供良好的生长和生存条件等。从业人员普遍认同动物的生理福利和环境福利,但对行为福利等却认知不足。从业人员在赞同动物福利的同时,又不太愿意因推行动物福利而承担过大的成本,如59.8%的从业者只愿意承担因遵守动物福利而导致5%及以下的成本增加。     

Evaluation of current equine welfare issues in Ireland: Causes,desirability, feasibility and means of raising standards

Reasons for performing study: Significant potential threats to the health and welfare of horses exist in Ireland when supply exceeds demand and the identification system for horses is not yet robust. Objectives: To secure engagement with stakeholder groups and determine their perception of equine welfare in Ireland and encourage the development of inclusive, rather than imposed, policy solutions. Methods: A 3 round, web‐based Policy Delphi incorporating novel vignette methodology was conducted from November 2007–March 2008 to canvass opinion (in both quantitative and qualitative forms) on the perceived most significant equine welfare issues. Vignettes (narratives depicting potential compromise to equine welfare) were employed. Quantitative data were collected in the form of scoring on a 9 point Likert scale with labelled end‐points, qualitative information as text subsequently analysed for themes. Results: All 44 respondents completed all rounds. Major equine welfare issues were identified as welfare of horses during the disposal process and at unregulated gatherings. Assessed quantitatively on a 9 point Likert scale (0 = minimal; 8 = maximal), respondents scored the desirability and feasibility of improving standards, median 8 and 6, respectively, for both issues identified. Basic themes identified in respondents' quotes as reasons to raise equine welfare standards were ideological, protection of animal welfare, safe‐guarding the reputation of the equine industry and safety (of people, horses and environment). Themes for reasons for low standards were societal norms, fiscal pressures, indolence, indifference and ignorance. Themes underpinning potential means for achieving meaningful change (solutions) were legislation, enforcement, education/training, fiscal remedies, increasing awareness and a combination of these. Conclusions: Mechanisms aimed at raising standards must be based on an understanding of motivational drivers for currently low standards. Potential relevance: The challenge is to translate the findings and this heightened awareness into meaningful change to the benefit of horses and those who care for them.