Interaction of a bioherbicide and glyphosate for controlling hemp sesbania in glyphosate-resistant soybean

The bioherbicidal fungus, Colletotrichum truncatum (Schwein.) Andrus & Moore, was tested at different inoculum concentrations alone and in combination with, prior to or following treatment with different rates of glyphosate ( N -[phosphonomethyl]glycine) (Roundup Ultra) for the control of hemp sesbania ( Sesbania exaltata [Raf.] Rydb. ex A.W. Hill) in Roundup Ready soybean field plots. Colletotrichum truncatum and glyphosate were applied in all pair-wise combinations of 0, 1.25, 2.5, 5.0, and 10.0 × 10⁶ spores mL⁻¹ (i.e. 3.125, 6.25, 12.5, and 25 × 10¹¹ spores ha⁻¹), and 0.15, 0.30, 0.60, and 1.2 kg ha⁻¹, respectively. Weed control and disease incidence were enhanced at the two lowest fungal and herbicidal rates when the fungal spores were applied after glyphosate treatment. The application of the fungus in combination with or prior to glyphosate application at 0.30 kg ha⁻¹ resulted in reduced disease incidence and weed control regardless of the inoculum's concentration. At the highest glyphosate rates, the weeds were controlled by the herbicide alone. These results suggest that it might be possible to utilize additive or synergistic herbicide and pathogen interactions to enhance hemp sesbania control.     

Weed infestation and tea growth under various weed management methods in a young tea (Camellia sinensis[L.] Kuntze) plantation

A field experiment was conducted in the low country of Sri Lanka, during the period 1994–1995 to investigate the severity of weed infestation and tea growth in relation to weed management methods in newly established tea ( Camellia sinensis [L.] Kuntze). Manual weeding (hand and slash weeding) at various intervals was compared with various herbicides, with or without mulching. Weed control with herbicides was superior to that of hand weeding at 6-week intervals or more. Weed control with oxyfluorfen at 0.29 kg ai ha⁻¹ + paraquat at 0.17 kg ai ha⁻¹ or glyphosate at 0.99 kg ai ha⁻¹ + kaolin at 3.42 kg ha⁻¹ were superior. Plots unweeded for 12 weeks or more produced significantly greater ( P  < 0.05) weed biomass than plots unweeded for 6 weeks. Although the least weed dry weight ( P  < 0.05) and the greatest number of weed species were recorded with hand weeding at 2 week intervals, there was no particular benefit on tea growth when compared with hand weeding at 6 and 12 week intervals. Inter row mulching in chemically treated plots was more favorable for tea growth than no mulching, while living weed cover in unmulched slash weeded plots suppressed tea growth. A combination of mulching and herbicides, particularly oxyfluorfen and paraquat, followed by hand weeding at least every 6–8 weeks was considered the most appropriate weed management system for young tea.     

Less hazardous alternative herbicides to control weeds in immature oil palm

In 2002, the Malaysian government had banned the use of the hazardous herbicide, paraquat. Most growers perceive that paraquat is the most effective herbicide and provides the fastest mode of action to control weeds. An experiment was conducted at MAB Agriculture-Horticulture, Sepang, Selangor, Malaysia, from February 2004 to February 2005 to evaluate the efficacy and ability of the less hazardous herbicides, glufosinate ammonium and glyphosate, as an alternative to the hazardous herbicide, paraquat, in controlling weeds in immature oil palm (<3 years old). The results showed that paraquat needed high rates, 600 and 800 g ha⁻¹, to control weeds effectively. However, lower rates of glufosinate ammonium (200 g ha⁻¹) and glyphosate (400 g ha⁻¹) gave excellent weed control. The results showed that the efficacy of glufosinate ammonium and glyphosate were much better than paraquat. The results also showed that, with no direct contact with the plants, paraquat, glufosinate ammonium, and glyphosate had no adverse effect on the vegetative and generative growth of oil palm in this study. These results proved that the less hazardous herbicides, glufosinate ammonium and glyphosate, could be used as an alternative to paraquat to control weeds in immature oil palm.     

Comparison of different weed management systems and their effects on yield of coconut plantations in Sri Lanka

The influence of five different weed management systems on nut yield of coconut were evaluated to determine an economical and effective method of controlling weeds in coconut plantations in the low country, dry zone in Sri Lanka. Treatments imposed included slashing and mulching around the palms with slash (T1), slashing and removing the slash (T2), application of glyphosate (N-(phosphonomethyl)-glycine) alone at 1.44 kg ai ha⁻¹ (T3), application of glyphosate alone at 2.88 kg ai ha⁻¹ (T4) and cover cropping with Pueraria phaseoloides (T5). All treatments were applied twice a year, except for the cover cropping treatment, T5. Based on a reduction in weed biomass, treatments T3, T4 and T5 were found to be significantly effective over other treatments. Coconut yield was increased significantly ( P  < 0.05) in glyphosate-applied plots at both tested rates. Control of weeds with the lower concentration of glyphosate (1.44 kg ai ha⁻¹) resulted in a 25% increase in nut yield over the uncontrolled weed plots. At this rate, it was found to be the most effective and economical method of controlling weeds in coconut plantations. Cover cropping with Pueraria phaseoloides was effective in controlling weeds in the long-term, but was not economical compared with the glyphosate application.     

Responses of otebo bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) to postemergence herbicides

Ontario otebo bean growers have few herbicide options available for weed management. Six field trials were conducted in Ontario, Canada, over a 2 year period (2003 and 2004) to evaluate the tolerance of otebo bean to the postemergence (POST) application of bentazon at 1080 and 2160 g ai ha⁻¹, fomesafen at 240 and 480 g ai ha⁻¹, sethoxydim at 500 and 1000 g ai ha⁻¹, quizalofop-p-ethyl at 72 and 144 g ai ha⁻¹, imazamox plus fomesafen at 25 + 200 and 50 + 400 g ai ha⁻¹, and imazamox plus bentazon at 25 + 600 and 50 + 1200 g ai ha⁻¹. All treatments, including the untreated control, were maintained weed-free during the growing season. The POST application of bentazon, imazamox plus fomesafen, and imazamox plus bentazon caused as much as 9% visual injury and reduced the plant height ≤ 12%, reduced the shoot dry weight ≤ 32%, and delayed maturity but had no adverse effect on the yield of otebo bean. Fomesafen, sethoxydim, and quizalofop-p-ethyl applied POST caused as much as 8% visual injury but this was transient and had no adverse effect on the plant height, shoot dry weight, seed moisture content, and yield of otebo bean, except for quizalofop-p-ethyl, which reduced the shoot dry weight as much as 18%. Based on these results, bentazon, fomesafen, sethoxydim, quizalofop-p-ethyl, imazamox plus fomesafen, and imazamox plus bentazon applied POST have an adequate margin of crop safety for weed management in otebo bean production in Ontario. However, care must be taken to avoid spray overlaps to prevent injury from bentazon, imazamox plus fomesafen, and imazamox plus bentazon.     

Red rice (Oryza sativa L.) and barnyardgrass (Echinochloa spp.) biotype susceptibility to postemergence-applied imazamox

Pot experiments were conducted to evaluate the level of imazamox tolerance in five red rice ( Oryza sativa L.) and four barnyardgrass (three Echinochloa crus-galli (L.) Beauv. and one Echinochloa oryzoides (Ard.) Fritch) morphologically distinct biotypes collected from rice fields in northern Greece. The susceptibility of barnyardgrass biotypes to propanil was also studied. Red rice biotypes were not controlled by imazamox applied at 40 g ha⁻¹. In contrast, 80 g imazamox ha⁻¹ provided 56–84% red rice control (averaged across shoot number and fresh weight reduction). Not all barnyardgrass biotypes were susceptible to imazamox applied postemergence. However, propanil applied at 2.6 kg ha ⁻¹ controlled the E. crus-galli biotypes well, but propanil applied at rates of 2.6 and 5.2 kg ha ⁻¹ was not effective in reducing the shoot number and fresh weight of the E. oryzoides biotype. Propanil applied at 10.4 kg ha ⁻¹ reduced the shoot number and fresh weight of this biotype by 78 and 85%, respectively. In most cases, a linear equation ( y  = % of control, x  = g ha⁻¹) provided the best fit for regressions between red rice or barnyardgrass shoot number or fresh weight and imazamox rates. The results of this study suggest that postemergence application of imazamox is not effective against all red rice and barnyardgrass biotypes found in the rice fields of Greece and that significant variability regarding herbicide efficacy among biotypes might exist.     

Weed control in irrigated corn by hairy vetch interseeded at different rates and times

In order to study the potential of interseeded hairy vetch as a living mulch to control weeds in corn, a field study was conducted at the Agricultural Research Farm, Razi University, Kermanshah, Iran. The experiment was carried out in a split-split plot arrangement with four replications. The main plots were two weed treatments (weedy and weed-free for all of the growing season), the subplots were two hairy vetch planting dates (simultaneous with corn planting and 10 days after corn emergence), and the sub-subplots were three hairy vetch planting rates (0, 25, and 50 kg ha⁻¹). The results indicated that the weedy condition for all of the growing season reduced corn plant traits, including the seed yield, number of ears per plant, number of seeds per ear, 100-seed weight, height, Leaf Area Index, and leaf chlorophyll content, as compared to the weed-free condition for the entire growing season. The hairy vetch dry weight also was reduced by the full-season weedy condition. The traits under study were not significantly influenced by the hairy vetch planting times, but increasing the hairy vetch planting rate from 0 to 50 kg ha⁻¹ improved the corn yield, number of seeds per ear, 100-seed weight, height, Leaf Area Index, and leaf chlorophyll content. However, the number of ears per plant was not significantly influenced and the weed dry weight was reduced by half. Overall, from the standpoint of corn seed production, an interseeding amount of 25 kg ha⁻¹ of hairy vetch is recommended; taking into consideration the legume forage yield, an interseeding amount of 50 kg ha⁻¹ of hairy vetch is more beneficial.     

Fertilisation and weed control effects on yield and weeds in durum wheat grown under rain-fed conditions in a Mediterranean climate

Summary A field study was undertaken to examine the effect of fertiliser type and weed control system on grain yield, yield components and weed population in durum wheat ( Triticum turgidum. var. durum) grown in a 4-year rotation [bare fallow–barley ( Hordeum vulgare )–vetch ( Vicia sativa )–wheat]. Fertilisation treatments were: no fertilisation, organic fertilisation with 2500 kg ha⁻¹ of compost (sheep manure and cereal straw) and chemical fertilisation with 100–60–60 kg ha⁻¹ of NPK. Weed-control treatments were: no control, herbicide, harrowing with long-flex spring tines and strip sowing with inter-row hoeing. Chemical fertilisation increased grain yield with respect to the other treatments, amongst which no significant differences were noted. Weed-control systems afforded no improvement in yield compared with controls; indeed, yields obtained using inter-row hoeing were lower. The weed population consisted of a large variety of species, of which the most important were Convolvulus arvensis and Polygonum aviculare . Application of weed-control systems reduced weed density. Herbicide was the most effective, reducing weed biomass by 80%, whilst harrowing and hoeing reduced weed biomass by 40% and 52% respectively. Inter-row hoeing does not appear to be a viable alternative to herbicides, when used as the sole weed control method in a non-diverse cropping system in Mediterranean climates. The lack of response to compost suggests a need for further long-term research.     

Response of winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) and weeds to tank mixtures of 2,4-D plus MCPA with clodinafop propargyl

Field and greenhouse experiments were conducted in 2004 and 2005 to study weed control and the response of winter wheat to tank mixtures of 2,4-D plus MCPA with clodinafop propargyl. The field experiments were conducted at Yazd and Oroumieh, Iran, with factorial combinations of 2,4-D plus MCPA at 0, 975, and 1300 g ai ha⁻¹ and with clodinafop propargyl at 0, 64, 80, 96, and 112 g ai ha⁻¹ in four replications. The greenhouse experiments further evaluated the effect of these tank mixtures on weed control, where each herbicide mixture was considered as one treatment and the experiment was established in a randomized complete block design with four replications. In the field experiments, the herbicides were applied at wheat tillering, while in the greenhouse experiments they were applied at the beginning of the tillering stage and at the four-leaf stage of the grass and broadleaf weeds, respectively. The results indicated antagonistic effects between 2,4-D plus MCPA and clodinafop propargyl. The best tank mixture with regard to weed control efficacy was 2,4-D plus MCPA at 975 g ai ha⁻¹ with clodinafop propargyl at 96 g ai ha⁻¹. The wheat grain yield was also increased by the tank mixture of clodinafop propargyl with 2,4-D plus MCPA. Generally, to inhibit clodinafop propargyl efficacy reduction due to tank-mixing with 2,4-D plus MCPA, it is recommended that the application dose of 64 g ai ha⁻¹ should be increased to 96 g ai ha⁻¹.     

Reduced rates of tank mixtures for red sprangletop (Leptochloa chinensis [L.] Nees) and greater club-rush (Scirpus grossus [L.] f.) control in rice

A study on the efficacy of tank-mix combinations on the growth of Leptochloa chinensis (L.) Nees and Scirpus grossus (L.) f. at the 3–4-leaf stage was conducted under glasshouse conditions. Sethoxydim plus cyhalofop-butyl at 8 + 25, 16 + 25, 32 + 25, 32 + 12.5, and 32 + 6.25 g ai ha⁻¹ provided good control of L. chinensis , ranging from 89–95%. However, a comparison of the costs of herbicide mixtures revealed that sethoxydim at 32 g ai ha⁻¹ plus cyhalofop-butyl at 6.25 g ai ha⁻¹ were the most cost-effective among the combinations. For Scirpus grossus , bensulfuron plus 2,4-D dimethylamine at 2.5 + 18, 5.0 + 18, 1.25 + 36, 2.5 + 36, and 5.0 + 36 g ai ha⁻¹ gave good control that ranged from 88–93%. Tank-mixing bensulfuron with 2,4-D at 1.25 + 36 g ai ha⁻¹ was, however, the most cost-effective mixture compared to the other mixtures. None of the tank mixtures tested in this study caused injury to the rice seedlings. However, further field studies need to be undertaken to verify these findings.     

Interactive effects of diluent pH and calcium content on glyphosate activity on Panicum repens L. (torpedograss)

Summary. Solutions of glyphosate containing 0–5 mM calcium, both with buffering (pH 4, 6 or 8) and without, were sprayed onto Panicum repens L. (torpedograss) foliage. Growth inhibition of the treated foliage was poorly correlated with inhibition of shoot regrowth from rhizomes. Therefore, when evaluating long term control of perennial grasses regrowth data should be utilized. Spray solution pH, calcium and glyphosate rate influenced herbicidal activity on torpedograss. Calcium affected glyphosate activity on torpedograss except at the highest herbicide rate (4·48 kg ha⁻¹). Optimum herbicidal activity on torpedograss was achieved with soft water (i.e. no calcium), however, when calcium was present in the spray solution a pH of 6 reduced its antagonistic effects.     

Enhanced effect of thiobencarb on bispyribac-sodium control of Echinochloa phyllopogon (Stapf ) Koss. in California rice (Oryza sativa L.)

Bispyribac-sodium {sodium 2,6-bis[(4,6-dimethoxy-2-pyrimidinyl)oxy] benzoate} has recently been introduced to California where it effectively controls Echinochloa spp. in rice ( Oryza sativa L.). However, biotypes of early watergrass ( Echinochloa oryzoides (Ard.) Fritsch) and late watergrass ( E. phyllopogon (Stapf ) Koss.) have evolved resistance to this herbicide. In 2001 and 2002, greenhouse and field experiments evaluated interactions between thiobencarb { S -[(4-chlorophenyl) methyl] diethylcarbamothioate} and bispyribac-sodium on resistant (R) and susceptible (S) late watergrass in California rice. Synergism was assessed using Colby's test and regression analysis. In the greenhouse, thiobencarb at 4480 and 5333 g ai ha⁻¹ synergistically reduced bispyribac-sodium GR₅₀ values on the R and S biotypes by 50–70% without increasing toxicity to rice. Synergism was also observed on S late watergrass in the field when 10 g ai ha⁻¹ bispyribac-sodium was mixed with 1120–2240 g ai ha⁻¹ thiobencarb. These effects could be related to interactions between thiocarbamates and enzymes in Phase I reactions of herbicide metabolism. This synergism results in better control at lower rates allowing a reduction in weed control costs, the herbicide load on the environment and a lower selection pressure towards resistant weed biotypes.     

White bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) tolerance to preplant-incorporated herbicides

There is a limited number of registered herbicides in white beans. Field trials were conducted at two Ontario, Canada, locations (Exeter and Ridgetown) in 2001 and 2002 to evaluate tolerance of two white bean cultivars, AC Compass and OAC Thunder, to preplant-incorporated applications of S -metolachlor plus imazethapyr (1600 + 75 and 3200 + 150 g ai ha⁻¹, respectively), flumetsulam plus S -metolachlor ( premixed at 1443 and 2886 g ai ha⁻¹) and cloransulam-methyl (35 and 70 g ai ha⁻¹). There were no differences between the two cultivars in their responses to the herbicide treatments. S -metolachlor plus imazethapyr caused as much as 5% visual crop injury and decreased plant height up to 20%, shoot dry weight up to 39% and yield as much as 21%. Flumetsulam plus S -metolachlor caused as much as 7% visual crop injury and reduced plant height by up to 25%, shoot dry weight by up to 46% and yield as much as 24%. Cloransulam-methyl caused as much as 10% visual crop injury and decreased plant height up to 35%, shoot dry weight up to 55% and yield as much as 44%. There were no differences in seed moisture content among any of the herbicide treatments. This research suggests that the margin of safety of white bean is inadequate to support the preplant-incorporated registration of S -metolachlor plus imazethapyr, flumetsulam plus S -metolachlor and cloransulam-methyl in Ontario.     

Response of black, cranberry, kidney, and white bean to linuron

Dry bean producers in Ontario, Canada, have few herbicide options available for annual broad-leaved weed management and there is little information on the tolerance of dry bean to linuron. The tolerance of black, cranberry, kidney, and white bean to the pre-emergence (PRE) application of linuron at the rates of 0, 500, 1000, 1500, 2000, and 2500 g ai ha⁻¹ was evaluated in field studies conducted in 2005 and 2006 at Exeter and in 2006 at Ridgetown, Ontario. The four market classes differed in their response to linuron. Cranberry and kidney bean were more tolerant to the PRE application of linuron than black and white bean. Linuron applied PRE caused as much as 12% injury in cranberry and kidney bean, 47% injury in black bean, and 56% injury in white bean. Linuron applied PRE at 500–2500 g ai ha⁻¹ had no effect on the height of cranberry and kidney bean but decreased the height by 7, 8, and 15% in black bean and by 10, 13, and 23% in white bean at 1500, 2000, and 2500 g ai ha⁻¹, respectively. Linuron applied PRE at the rates evaluated did not cause any adverse affect on the yield of cranberry, kidney, and white bean but black bean yield was reduced by 16% at 2500 g ai ha⁻¹. Based on these results, there is not an adequate margin of crop safety for the PRE application of linuron in black and white bean at rates >1000 g ai ha⁻¹. However, there is a potential for the use of linuron PRE for weed management in cranberry and kidney bean at the rates evaluated.     

Comparison of commercial glyphosate formulations for control of prickly sida, purple nutsedge, morningglory and sicklepod

The efficacy of the commercial glyphosate [( N -phosphonomethyl) glycine] formulations Roundup Ultra, Touchdown and Engame were compared for the control of prickly sida ( Sida spinosa L.), morningglory ( Ipomeae hederacea var. integriuscula Gray), sicklepod ( Senna obtusifolia L.) and purple nutsedge ( Cyperus rotundus L.). Engame is a new formulation of glyphosate that contains glyphosate acid and 1-aminomethanamide dihydrogen tetraoxosulfate (AMADS), a proprietary mixture of sulfuric acid and urea, other than glyphosate salt and surfactants. Injury by Engame differed from Roundup Ultra and Touchdown in that necrotic lesions formed on leaves several hours after treatment. Leaves of very susceptible species, such as prickly sida, were rapidly, although incompletely, desiccated and then became chlorotic and died in a manner typical of other glyphosate formulations. Engame was 2–3 times more active to growth inhibition than either the Roundup Ultra or Touchdown formulations, based on GR₅₀ comparisons expressed on an acid equivalent basis. The GR₅₀ estimates did not change over the 3 week evaluation period for prickly sida and purple nutsedge, and after 2 weeks after treatment for morningglory. The GR₅₀ estimates for sicklepod decreased over the 3 week evaluation period indicating a slower response to glyphosate. The application of AMADS alone caused minute necrotic lesions on sicklepod and purple nutsedge, and lesions up to 3 mm in diameter on prickly sida and morningglory. Further injury from AMADS was not noted and plants resumed growth without apparent delay. At glyphosate rates above 1120 g ha⁻¹, greater than 80% control was achieved at 7 days after treatment. These results demonstrate that glyphosate efficacy can be further enhanced by formulations that apparently improve uptake and translocation.     

Control of weed barley species in winter wheat with sulfosulfuron at different rates and times of application

Field experiments were conducted at five locations in the major wheat production regions of Iran to evaluate the efficacy of sulfosulfuron in controlling weed barley species (including Hordeum spontaneum , Hordeum murinum , Hordeum distichon , and Hordeum vulgare ) in the 2004–2005 and 2005–2006 growing seasons. Sulfosulfuron was applied either postemergence (POST) or preplant-incorporated (PPI) at 0, 20.25, 30.75, 40.5, 51.0, 60.75 or 71.25 g ai ha⁻¹ to plots arranged in a randomized complete block design with four replications. Sulfosulfuron at the recommended rate (20.25 g ai ha⁻¹) failed to provide acceptable control of the weed barley species. However, the level of control increased with the application rate, particularly at rates >51.0 g ai ha⁻¹. Generally, PPI-applied sulfosulfuron resulted in markedly greater control levels than those of a POST application and complete control of H. murinum and H. vulgare was achieved with PPI-applied sulfosulfuron at all rates >20.25 and 30.75 g ai ha⁻¹, respectively. In most cases, the wheat yield increased with the application rate without any crop injury. The highest yield increase (186%) was obtained with a PPI application of 71.25 g ai ha⁻¹.     

Effects of nitrogen fertilization and cutting height on the forage yield and feeding value of Eleusine indica in the dry season in Nepal

The objective of this study was to determine the regrowth characteristics, crude protein (CP) content, and feeding value of Eleusine indica grass during the dry season in Nepal. The grass was cultivated using three different levels of N fertilization (0, 50, and 100 kg ha⁻¹) and cutting heights (2, 4, and 6 cm above the ground) in a 3 × 3 factorial design. The forage yield, number of tillers per plant, and CP content of the grass were determined. A digestibility trial was conducted with six local, female Khari goats (15 ± 1.7 kg body weight) in a cross-over design to compare the feeding value of E. indica with local forages. A comparatively higher forage yield, number of tillers per plant, and CP content were obtained with 100 kg N ha⁻¹. However, the forage yield and CP content were not significantly affected by the cutting height. With different levels of N fertilization and cutting heights, the cumulative forage yield in five harvests during the dry season (December to May) ranged from 1.83–3.82 t dry matter ha⁻¹. The digestibility coefficients of the dry matter, CP, crude fiber, and ether extract content of E. indica for goats were 0.54, 0.67, 0.70, and 0.54, respectively. The nutrient digestibility and palatability of E. indica were comparable to that of the mixed local forages. Hence, E. indica in conjunction with a sound N fertilization practise potentially can be utilized as an approach to overcome the problem of green forage scarcity, especially during the dry winter season in regions that have a tropical climate.     

Mulched cover crops as an alternative to conventional weed management systems in vineyards

Conventional methods of weed management in vineyards rely primarily on herbicides and tillage. The desire to adopt alternatives to these methods is driven by environmental and economic reasons. Weed suppression and grape yield under mulched cover crop systems at two rainfed northern California vineyards were similar to, and at times exceeded, those under conventional tillage or herbicide management. Cover crop productivity was positively correlated with weed suppression and mulch decomposition rates and seemed to be determined primarily by location and then by cover crop type. The mulch from mowed cover crops averaged 603(± 94) gm⁻² at the two sites. Weed suppression was linked to light interception by the mulch cover for most weed species. Subterranean clover planted directly in the vine row significantly reduced weed cover where it established. The increased dominance of the perennial Convolvulus arvensis and reduction of certain annual species was indicative of species compositional changes in all treatments. Profits under the cover cropping systems exceeded those under conventional tillage and herbicide systems by €  794 ha⁻¹ averaged over the duration of the experiment at both locations.     

Interval between sequential applications of asulam for regrowth control of torpedograss (Panicum repens L.)

Two field experiments each conducted during a 1 year period at the Agricultural Experiment Farm, University of the Ryukyus, Japan evaluated the interval needed between sequential applications of asulam (3 kg ai ha⁻¹) for successful control of torpedograss ( Panicum repens L.). Regrowth of torpedograss from rhizomes was lowest when asulam was applied at 40-day intervals. Application at intervals of 70 days or longer completely controlled above-ground shoots but not regrowth from rhizomes. Above-ground biomass of torpedograss regrowth was 7- and 49-fold higher when asulam was applied at 70 and 100 day intervals, respectively, compared with 40-day intervals. Asulam applied three times at 40-day intervals starting 40 days after land preparation provided almost total torpedograss control 1 year after the initial application.     

Susceptibilities of some aquatic ferns to paddy herbicide bensulfuron methyl

Paddy herbicides have the potential to cause adverse effects on non-target plants. Susceptibilities of some aquatic ferns ( Azolla japonica Franch. et Savat., Isoetes japonica A. Braun, Marsilea quadrifolia L. and Salvinia natans All.) and duckweeds ( Lemna minor L. and Spirodela polyrhiza Schleid.) to paddy herbicide bensulfuron methyl (BSM) were evaluated with a 20 day exposure experiment using 200 cm² pots. The BSM concentrations in the surface water of monitoring pots with no plants dissipated exponentially with half lives of 3.5 and 3.9 days at application rates of 15 and 150 g ha⁻¹, respectively. The BSM concentrations in the surface water 1 day after application in the culture pots were comparable among plant species, and were lower than those in the monitoring pots. Bensulfuron methyl reduced the plant growth in all species. I . japonica showed the lowest intrinsic relative growth rate (RGR) and the lowest susceptibility with an effective dose resulting in 50% growth inhibition (ED₅₀) of 21 g ha⁻¹. Except for I . japonica , the RGR of the duckweeds was similar to the ferns, and ED₅₀ for the duckweeds was higher than the ferns. ED₅₀ for Sa . natans , A . japonica and M . quadrifolia were 1.1, 1.8 and 1.2 g ha⁻¹, respectively, which were smaller than 1/20 of the recommended field dose (51–75 g ha⁻¹) and ranged from 1/2 to 1/6 of ED₅₀ for L . minor and Sp . polyrhiza (6.5 and 3.2 g ha⁻¹, respectively). These results suggest that BSM application in paddy fields and its runoff in some localities is expected to have adverse effects on the growth of Sa . natans , A . japonica and M . quadrifolia .