Utilisation of ambadi (hibiscus cannabinus) meal by growing chickens

1. Experiments were conducted to compare the utilisation of ambadi meal with that of peanut meal in WL chicks and broilers.

2. Ambadi meal, either expeller‐processed (135.5 g and 271 g/kg) or solvent‐extracted (130.5 g and 261 g/kg), was incorporated at the expense of the peanut meal protein used in the reference diet (180 g/ kg) into diets which were fed to WL pullets (experiment 1) from 1 to 56 d of age. The weight gains and food efficiencies of the chicks fed on the ambadi meal and reference diets were similar.

3. With broilers (experiment 2) the weight gains were also similar, at all dietary concentrations of ambadi meal (89 to 356 g/kg), to those on the reference diet (235 g/kg peanut meal) from 14 to 35 d of age. However, food intake was higher on the ambadi meal diets and this resulted in significantly poorer food efficiency when compared to the reference diet.

4. High food intake and consequently low food efficiency was still evident in birds given ambadi meal diets even when ambadi meal replaced peanut meal on a digestible protein basis (experiment 4) or when ambadi meal (expeller or solvent‐extracted) was subjected to physical treatments such as soaking, autoclaving and pelleting (experiment 5).

5. The transit time of food through the gastro‐intestinal tract of broilers was faster when the diet contained ambadi meal than peanut meal. The higher food intake seen in broilers given diets containing ambadi meal could be the consequence of the fast rate of food passage.

6. Ambadi meal in diets for broilers resulted in significant increase (P<0.05) in the lengths of jejunum plus ileum and caecum. Fibre from the ambadi meal might have influenced the changes in the dimensions of gastro‐intestinal tract as well as in the transit time of food.     

Rapeseed meals in broiler diets: Effect on performance and sensory evaluation of carcasses

1. The effect of including rapeseed meal (RSM) in lieu of soyabean meal in broiler diets was determined.

2. Live‐weight gains, from 8 to 63 d, were depressed when the diet contained 150 g RSM/kg and there was a highly significant negative correlation between weight gain and inclusion rate of RSM over this period.

3. The efficiency of food utilisation was worse when the diet included 150 g solvent RSM/kg than when it contained no RSM: food efficiency was consistently poorer whenever RSM was included in the diet but the difference was significant only when the diet contained 10 g tallow/kg.

4. Carcasses from birds fed on diets containing 10 g tallow/kg had a better appearance than those from birds on diets containing 30 g tallow/kg, while the flavour of meat from birds fed on a diet containing 150 g solvent RSM/kg treatment was adversely affected. However, up to 100 g solvent RSM/kg may be included in broiler diets without affecting appearance, taste, texture or acceptability of the meat.

5. Inclusion of 50 g or more, solvent RSM/kg reduced growth rate and worsened food efficiency.     

The effects on rearing and subsequent laying performance of rearer diets containing two levels of protein and dried poultry manure or urea

1. Six hundred and seventy‐two light‐hybrid pullets aged 6 weeks were allocated to eight experimental treatments and cage‐reared to 18 weeks of age when they were transferred to single‐bird battery cages and fed on a common layer diet.

2. In the 6‐ to 12‐week period four dietary treatments were applied: a diet containing about 160 g crude protein (CP)/kg with or without 50 g dried poultry manure (DPM)/kg (diets 2 and 1 respectively) and a diet containing about 140 g CP/kg with or without 50 g DPM/kg (diets 4 and 3). In the 12‐ to 18‐week period two additional diets were fed: diets 1 and 3 supplemented with 10 g urea/kg (diets 5 and 6 respectively). Diets containing DPM were formulated to utilise the CP, energy, calcium and 50% of the phosphorus content of DPM.

3. Pullets fed on diets 1, 2 and 5 (high‐protein) were significantly heavier at 18 weeks than those fed on diets 3, 4 and 6 (low‐protein). In the laying period total estimated egg weight, food intake and conversion were significantly greater, and the age at first egg was significantly less (2.4 d).

4. Dietary DPM had no significant effect on the 18‐week body weight but food consumption was significantly less and conversion was significantly improved. There were no significant effects on subsequent laying performance. Dietary urea caused no significant effects on rearing or laying performance.     

Studies on the toxic effects of crambe meal and two of its constituents, 1‐cyano‐2‐hydroxy‐3‐butene (GHB) and epiprogoitrin,in broiler chick diets

1. Studies were undertaken to determine a safe inclusion rate for crambe (Crambe abyssinica) meal in broiler chick diets, and to determine the mechanism for adverse effects by investigating its constituents; l‐cyano‐2‐hydroxy‐3‐butene (CHB) and 3‐butenyl glucosinolate (epi‐progoitrin, E‐PG).

2. Crambe meals were prepared to differ in E‐PG (19, 36 and 40 g/kg) and CHB contents (0.1, 0.7 and 1.9 g/kg), and with either active or inactive thioglucosidase.

3. Meals were fed to 7‐d‐old broiler chicks at 50 or 100 g/kg of the diet for 12 or 13 d. In separate studies, isolated E‐PG or CHB were mixed into the diet or administered by gavage to 7‐d‐old broiler chicks in amounts equivalent to 50 or 100 g/kg crambe meal diets for 10 and 12 d, respectively.

4. Weight gain decreased (P<0.05) in chicks fed on the high glucosinolate crambe diets or isolated E‐PG. Food consumption decreased (P<0.05) in chicks fed on the diet containing the high E‐PG meal with active enzyme.

5. Mild liver lesions and increased serum aspartate aminotransferase were found in chicks fed on the diet containing the high glucosinolate meal with active enzyme. Other organs, including thyroids, were normal.

6. Commercially‐processed crambe meal appeared safe at an inclusion rate of 50 or 100 g/kg diet, but could not be recommended at this point for long term feeding.     

Sulphur amino acid requirement of laying hens and the effects of excess dietary methionine on laying performance

1. Individually‐caged laying hens were fed on maize‐soya bean meal diets containing 11.50 or 12.35 MJ ME/kg with sulphur amino acid (SAA) contents varying from 5.0 to 7.0 g/kg in period 1 (0 to 20 weeks); from 5.0 to 8.0 g/kg in period 2 (21 to 36 weeks) and from 5.0 to 10.0 g/kg in period 3 (37 to 52 weeks).

2. A SAA requirement of about 750 mg/hen d, of which about 425 mg was methionine, was found to be adequate for birds producing on average 51 g egg mass per hen d over 52 weeks. The SAA requirement was found to be higher for maximum efficiency of food utilisation than for maximum egg yield.

3. A diet containing 140 g protein/kg adequately supplemented with methionine and lysine, could sustain laying performance almost identical to that achieved on a diet containing 167 g protein/kg.

4. In diets with 140 g protein/kg the addition of 0.5 to 3.5 g dl‐methionine/kg diet in excess of the requirement did not affect egg production adversely, but food conversion efficiency was decreased.     

Guar meal in diets for broiler chickens

1. In two experiments each involving 2 000 Ross 1 broiler chickens in floor pens from 0 to 56 d of age, the effects of including guar meal at 50, 100 or 150 g/kg of the diet were investigated.

2. During the 0 to 28‐d period diets containing 50 or 100 g guar meal/kg supported only 85 and 69%, respectively, of the growth supported by the control diet, whereas during 28 to 56 d, birds fed on diets containing 100 or 150 g guar meal/kg gained 90 and 86% of the weight gained by control birds.

3. Neither toasting the meal, steam pelleting diets containing the meal nor supplementing these diets with 5 g methionine/kg had any appreciable effect on performance.

4. Addition of either of two enzyme preparations, MKC hemicellulase or betaganase M, improved growth; birds receiving 100 or 150 g guar meal/kg gaining 96 and 89%, respectively, of the weight gained by control birds from 28 to 56 d of age.     

The nutritive value of fish meal, meat-and-bone meal and field bean meal as measured by digestibility experiments on the adult colostomised fowl

Digestibility experiments were carried out, using colostomised hens fed semi‐synthetic diets containing fish meal, meat‐and‐bone meal or field bean meal as the sole source of protein. A “nitrogen‐free” diet was fed to one group of three birds.

Metabolic faecal nitrogen (MFN) output of birds consuming about 75 g dry matter/d was 106 mg/d. The amino acid composition of the MFN was determined. Endogenous urinary nitrogen output (one result) was 0.80 mg Wg0–75/d.

The true digestibilities of the crude protein of fish meal, meat‐and‐bone meal and field bean meal were respectively 89, 69 and 83 per cent. Digestibility coefficients of individual amino acids were also determined and it was found that the amino acids were not equally digestible. However, for each protein source most of the coefficients fell within a range of + 5 per cent of the mean.

The metabolisable energy content of the fish meal was 2645 kcal/kg, meat‐and‐bone meal 1988 kcal/kg and field beans 2910 kcal/kg.     

Response of broiler chicks to threonine‐supplemented diets to 4 weeks of age

1. Two experiments were carried out to determine the response of broiler chicks to threonine‐supplemented diets between 10 and 28 d and 7 and 21 d of age, respectively.

2. In the first experiment female broiler chicks were fed on 11 experimental diets. Two iso‐energetic basal diets (diets 1 and 2) were prepared with 200 and 160 g CP/kg and 7·6 and 6·0 g threonine/kg respectively. Both diets contained 11·5 g lysine and 8·7 g sulphur‐containing amino acids/kg. Diet 3 was composed of diet 2, supplemented with all essential and non‐essential amino acids (EAA and NEAA, respectively) except threonine, to the concentrations of the amino acids in diet 1. The NEAA were added as a combination of glutamic acid and glycine. Diets 4 to 11 had the same compositions as diet 3, but contained increasing amounts of threonine.

3. For birds fed on diet 2, gain was significantly lower and food/gain ratio was significantly higher than for birds fed on diet 1. Supplementation with EAA, NEAA and threonine to the same concentrations in diet 1 resulted in a performance similar to that found on diet 1.

4. In experiment 2, male and female broiler chicks both received 10 experimental diets. Diet 1 contained 220 g CP/kg and 8.5 g threonine/kg, diet 2 contained 160 g CP/kg from natural raw materials and 6 g threonine/kg. Both diets contained 12·4 g lysine and 9·3 g sulphur‐containing amino acids/kg. Basal diet 2 was supplemented with all EAA and NEAA to the concentrations of basal diet 1, except for threonine. Diets 3 to 10 had the same compositions as the supplemented diet 2, but contained increasing amounts of threonine.

5. For male and female chicks on diet 2, gain was significantly lower and food/gain ratio significantly higher than those on diet 1. Diet 10 (160 g CP/kg plus all EAA, including threonine, and NEAA supplemented to the concentrations of diet 1) resulted in the same performance as diet 1.

6. The results indicate that, when low protein maize‐soyabean meal diets supplemented with EAA and NEAA with 13·31 MJ ME/kg were fed to male and female broiler chicks until 21 d of age, improvements in gain and food/gain ratio were obtained when the dietary threonine content was increased to 7·25 g/kg. When female chicks were fed threonine‐supplemented diets to 28 d of age, improvement in gain and food/gain ratio was obtained when the threonine concentrations were increased to 6·32 g/kg diet.

7. Curves have been fitted to the data, from which a cost‐benefit analyses can be made and an optimum threonine dose calculated, using local prices.     

The performance of male ducklings given starter diets with different concentrations of energy and protein

1. Male ducklings were fed for 14, 21 or 28 d on diets containing 180, 200, 220 or 240 g of protein and 10.88 or 12.55 MJ of metabolisable energy (ME) per kg, followed by a common finisher diet until 56 d of age.

2. Birds given starter diets with 220 or 240 g of protein per kg were significantly heavier at 14 d than those given diets with 180 or 200 g protein per kg.

3. There was no significant benefit in feeding diets with protein levels greater than 180 g/kg for more than 14 d.

4. Diets with only 10.88 MJ of ME per kg produced significantly lighter birds at 28 and 56 d of age and significantly reduced food conversion efficiency up to 14 d.     

Use of khesari (lathyrus sativus) in chick diets

1. Broiler chicks, reared for 14 d in battery brooders, were given diets containing 100, 222 or 367 g/kg of khesari meal (Lathyrus sativus) in three different experiments.

2. Birds receiving raw khesari consumed less food and grew more slowly than birds receiving a maize‐soya diet. Supplementation with DL‐methionine did not improve the nutritive value of khesari diets, but the inclusion of L‐tryptophan produced a positive response.

3. When khesari was either autoclaved or heated in a commercial “ micronisation “ process and then incorporated at 367 g/kg in a balanced chick diet, growth and efficiency of food utilisation were at least equal to those obtained with a maize‐soya diet.

4. Khesari depresses chick growth when fed raw, but is an excellent protein source for growing chicks if fed after a suitable heat treatment. Since the component in raw khesari which is toxic to chickens is heat‐labile, it is probably not the same factor that is responsible for human lathyrism.     

Diets for growing pullets containing unusual ingredients and varying concentrations of cereals,including no cereals

1. Growing pullets (Shaver 288) were fed on diets containing about 150 or 100 g protein/kg and 800, 600, 300 or 0 g of a mixture of equal parts of wheat and barley, from 12 to 20 weeks of age.

2. Varying mixtures of dried poultry manure, dried grass, dried potato meal, poultry offal meal and tallow were substituted for the cereal portion, so that calculated metabolisable energy values and methionine and lysine concentrations were constant within each protein series.

3. Within the 150 g protein/kg series, body weight at 20 weeks of age was similar for diets containing 800, 600 and 300 g/kg cereal whereas with the cereal‐free diet body weight was depressed by 10%; with the latter diet sexual maturity was also delayed by nearly 4 d though subsequent egg production was unimpaired.

4. Within the 100 g protein/kg series, body weight at 20 weeks of age and subsequent egg production, calculated either to a fixed age or for a given time spent laying, were depressed by diets containing 300 or 0 g cereal/kg, compared with diets containing 800 or 600 g/kg.

5. Dietary concentrations of dried poultry manure up to 250 g/kg had no effect on mortality.     

Effects of nutrient concentration and dietary presentation on performance of dwarf hens

1. Diets containing 170 or 190 g protein/kg and 10.9 or 11.7 MJ ME/kg in all combinations were offered to dwarf hens in two dietary presentations: a complete mash or a form in which part of the protein and calcium contents were presented as soyabean meal pellets and limestone grit respectively.

2. Egg production and egg mass output were higher with the 190 g protein/kg diets.

3. Lower‐energy diets gave better egg production, while higher‐energy diets containing 190 g protein/kg improved food conversion efficiency.

4. Separation of protein and calcium constituents tended to give better egg production, food conversion efficiency, shell thickness and egg mass output.     

Utilisation of squilla meal (a novel animal protein source) by Broilers

1. The nutritive value of squilla meal, which contained 339 g crude protein, 18.6 g ether extract, 72.8 g calcium, 17.2 g phosphorus and 7.13 MJ of apparent metabolisable energy/kg, was examined in 5 experiments with broilers.

2. Squilla meal contained less lysine (3.45 vs 6.74 g/16g nitrogen) and methionine (1.02 vs 1.86/16 g nitrogen) dian fish meal, had a lower protein digestibility coefficient (0.66 vs 0.72) and a lower gross protein value (68% vs 74%).

3. By gradually replacing the fish meal with squilla meal in isocaloric, isonitrogenous broiler diets it was shown that there was a linear decrease in broiler weight gain; efficiencies of food utilisation were also lower at all squilla meal substitution rates. Inclusion of squilla meal in the diets increased intestinal lengths.

4. Addition of a proteolytic enzyme to the diets containing squilla meal restored broiler weight gain and efficiency of food utilisation to that of birds fed on the control diet.

5. Diets containing autoclaved squilla meal resulted in reduced weight gain although efficiency of food utilisation was not affected.     

Phosphorus requirements of poultry. V. The effects during the subsequent laying year of feeding growing diets containing no animal protein or supplementary phosphorus

Pullets reared to 18 weeks of age on diets containing no feeding stuffs of animal origin and without phosphorus supplementation showed no significant difference in egg yield compared with similar pullets fed rearing diets containing animal protein and added phosphorus.

During the laying stage, diets in commercial use at this centre gave significantly higher egg yields, better average egg prices due to superior grading results and a higher margin over food cost than the same diets modified to conform with the nutrient recommendations of the National Research Council of America (1960).

Where the supplementary protein in both types of layers' diet was of vegetable origin, egg yield, food cost and margin of income over food cost were all significantly inferior to groups fed comparable diets containing supplementary protein of both vegetable and animal origin.

Soyabean meal and sunflower seed meal gave significantly poorer results when used in combination as the sole protein supplement compared with soyabean meal plus methionine.     

Effects of two Neepawa wheats (triticum aestivum,l.) fed at two protein concentrations with added dietary lysine on growth of turkey poults

1. Two Neepawa wheats (145 and 210 g protein/kg) were tested in diets of two protein contents (220 and 280 g protein/kg) with or without added dietary lysine (0, 1, 2, 3, 4 or 5 g/kg) in a factorial experiment with young male turkeys (1 to 28 d). The protein contents of the diets were obtained by varying the proportions of the wheats and soyabean meal.

2. Irrespective of the Neepawa wheat used or lysine added, maximum growth was not obtained with diets containing 220 g protein/kg.

3. There was no response to lysine added to diets of 280 g protein/kg containing the 145 g protein/kg Neepawa wheat, but there was such a response in such diets containing the 210 g protein/kg wheat.

4. It is concluded that the Neepawa wheat containing 210 g protein/ kg, when supplemented with lysine, can replace soyabean meal in diets for young turkey poults.     

Comparison of wheats of high or conventional protein content with added lysine in diets for layers

1. High‐protein wheats (196 or 210 g/kg) were compared with conventional wheat (163 or 162 g/kg) in layers’ diets in three experiments.

2. In diets of 160 g protein/kg without added lysine, high‐protein wheats caused lower rates of production and egg size than conventional wheats in White Leghorns. Lysine supplementation of the former diets eliminated these differences.

3. The improvements in egg production and egg weight were significant with 1 g additional lysine/kg and egg production tended to improve further with 2 g additional lysine/kg, as did egg weight with all subsequent additions, but not significantly so.

4. With diets containing high‐protein wheats supplemented with lysine, high egg production and egg weight could be obtained without a protein supplement (e.g. soyabean meal).

5. In broiler‐breeders egg production was lower and food conversion poorer with high‐protein wheat despite added lysine.     

Performance of broiler chicks fed on alkali‐treated neem (Azadirachta indica) kernel cake as a protein supplement

1. An experiment was conducted to evaluate growth and nutrient efficiency of broiler chicks from 3 to 42 d fed on diets containing alkali‐treated neem (Azadirachta indica A. juss) kernel cake (NKC) as a protein supplement in place of peanut meal (PNM).

2. NKC was treated with sodium hydroxide at 10 (ANKC 1) or 20 g (ANKC 2)/kg and incorporated into the test diets at 135 or 300 g/kg to replace 50 (low—L) or 100 (High—H) % of the PNM protein of the reference diet.

3. Despite comparable retentions of dry matter and total carbohydrate on L‐ANKC 1 and 2, fibre on L‐and H‐ANKC 2 and nitrogen, calcium and acid detergent fibre on all experimental diets compared to the retentions of chicks on the reference diet, only the chicks fed L‐ANKG 2 were found to grow and utilise food as well as those on the reference diet.

4. The activities of serum alkaline phosphatase on H‐ANKC 1 and alanine amino transferase on all test diets were depressed (P < 0.05), but the activity of serum aspartate amino transferase, total erythrocyte count and concentration of blood haemoglobin and urea were similar in all chicks.

5. No significant differences were noticed in the qualitative and quantitative characteristics of the meat of chicks fed on the reference diet and on diets incorporating ANKC at the lower concentrations. Feeding ANKC protein did not impart any untoward taste as evaluated in pressure cooked meat by a semitrained panel on a 7 point Hedonic scale.

6. Except for duodenal and jejunal inflammation in chicks on both reference and test diets, all the vital organs were normal, ruling out any adverse affects caused by residual neem bitters.

7. Comparable performance and cost of chicks fed on the reference and L‐ANKC 2 diets, warrants the utilisation of hitherto wasted protein‐rich NKC after alkali treatment in broiler chick diets to spare peanut meal for human consumption in developing countries.     

Lysine requirement of broiler chicks as affected by protein source and method of statistical evaluation 1

1. An experiment was designed to test if the lysine requirement, expressed as g lysine/kg CP, was the same for several protein sources.

2. Groundnut meal, groundnut meal adjusted with indispensable amino acids or sesame meal supplied the dietary CP at 180 g/kg diet. Increments of lysine (1.5 g/kg diet) were added to each of these diets.

3. The gain, food intake and food efficiency responses of broiler chicks were analysed using a quadratic equation and a two‐slope method. An estimate of lysine requirements was also obtained from a survey of college students.

4. The different methods produced widely different estimates of lysine requirement.

5. The average lysine requirement was estimated at 50.1 g lysine/kg CP for groundnut meal, 61.7 for adjusted groundnut meal and 54.9 for sesame meal.

6. Reasons for the effect of statistical analysis and protein source on lysine requirement are discussed.     

Lupin and rapeseed meals in poultry diets: Effect on broiler performance and sensory evaluation of carcasses

1. The effect of including lupin meal (Lupinus angustifolius), with or without rapeseed meal, in computer‐formulated, least‐cost diets for broilers has, been determined.

2. In the first experiment the diets contained 0, 8 (with and without supplementary methionine, lysine, or methionine and lysine) or 16% lupin meal: addition of the lupin meal required a concomitant addition of 5 % rapeseed meal (by computer selection).

3. The diets were fed from 38 to 65 d and did not affect live‐weight but the efficiency of food utilisation was significantly worse on the 16 % lupin, 5% rapeseed meal diet than it was on the control diet.

4. The second experiment was designed as a 2 x 4 factorial to separate any effect due to rapeseed meal from that due to lupin meal, the treatments, which were applied from 1 to 62 d, being 0, 8, 16 and 24% lupin meal with and without 5 % rapeseed meal.

5. Birds gained more rapidly in the second experiment on diets containing 16 or 24% lupin meal whereas live‐weight was depressed when 5% rapeseed meal was included in the diets containing 0 or 8% lupin.

6. The 16 and 24% lupin treatments also had added dietary fat from 6 to 9 weeks of age and this may have ameliorated the adverse effect of rapeseed meal.

7. Up to 16% lupin meal and 5% rapeseed meal had no detectable effect on the colour, appearance, flavour or texture of roasted chicken meat when evaluated by a trained taste panel.     

Influence of sand and grit on the performance of turkey poults fed on diets containing two concentrations of protein 1

1. Growth rate and the efficiencies of food and energy utilisation were investigated with large white poults. They were fed from 1 to 3 weeks of age on diets containing either 240 or 300 g crude protein/kg diet, with no filler, 25 g washed builders’ sand/kg or 25 g chick‐size grit/kg.

2. Sand and grit increased growth and improved the food and energy conversion ratios. None of the interactions of crude protein content with filler was statistically significant.

3. It is speculated that grit and sand improved the grinding and the digestion of the food particles.