Protected areas in climate space: What will the future bring?

Protected areas for conservation are intended to contain the environmental conditions that enable species and ecosystems to persist. The locations of such areas are fixed, but the environment within them may change, especially with climate change. To illustrate how multiple climate factors may change in relation to protection status, we used Principal Components Analysis to construct a climate space for California based on eight climate variables assessed at an 800-m resolution. We used projections of future climate derived from a downscaled regional climate model in conjunction with the IPCC SRES A2 scenario to assess how the climate space might shift under future conditions and to identify the combinations of conditions that may no longer occur in the state (disappearing climates) or that will be new to the state (novel climates). Disappearing climates, which were generally toward cooler and/or wetter extremes of the climate space, represented only 0.5% of California’s land area but occurred disproportionately more often in conservation areas that were fully protected. Novel climates (5.8% of California) also occurred disproportionately in fully protected areas; in most cases these climates were characterized by hotter and drier combinations with more seasonal precipitation. The disproportionate occurrence of both novel and disappearing future climates in currently protected areas may create challenges to conservation of the status quo, but such areas may also be “hotspots of opportunity” for responding to the extremes of climate change.     

Assessing the extent and causes of forest degradation in India: Where do we stand?

In India, conservation of biodiversity goes hand in hand with human welfare, as millions of people live adjacent or within protected areas and depend upon forests products. The high density and biomass requirements of these households could result in the degradation of forests and loss of biodiversity. We assessed the collection of forest products among households in five sites in the Western and Eastern Ghats of peninsular India: the Kogar region of the Central Western Ghats, the Bandipur and Sigur regions of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve, the Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve of the southern Western Ghats and Similipal Tiger Reserve of the northern Eastern Ghats, and tested whether extraction pressure on forests was associated with the proportion of agricultural households, wage labour and population density. We also examined whether data on loss of cover as stated by the State of the Forest Reports was supported by field data. The regions differed in land use: Kogar, KMTR and Similipal were primarily agricultural regions, whereas households engaged in wage labour or in running small businesses were predominant in Sigur and Bandipur. Fuel-wood was collected ubiquitously for household use in all sites, used mainly for domestic requirements and secondarily for generating income. Green leaves for making fertilizer and fodder were collected for household use and did not enter the market. Cattle manure for the global organic coffee industry was a major forest product in Bandipur and Sigur. Extraction pressure on forests was positively associated with the availability of wage labour and was negatively with the proportion of agricultural households. Data from official sources seem inadequate to measure forest degradation in protected forests. Accurate estimation of forest condition through field assessments and remote sensing, and understanding the socio-economic variables associated with forest loss and degradation are needed for the sustainable management of Indian protected areas.     

Does variability in litter quality determine soil microbial respiration in an Amazonian rainforest?

Tree species-rich tropical rainforests are characterized by a highly variable quality of leaf litter input to the soil at small spatial scales. This diverse plant litter is a major source of energy and nutrients for soil microorganisms, particularly in rainforests developed on old and nutrient-impoverished soils. Here we tested the hypothesis that the variability in leaf litter quality produced by a highly diverse tree community determines the spatial variability of the microbial respiration process in the underlying soil. We analyzed a total of 225 litter-soil pairs from an undisturbed Amazonian rainforest in French Guiana using a hierarchical sampling design. The microbial respiration process was assessed using substrate-induced respiration (SIR) and compared to a wide range of quality parameters of the associated litter layer (litter nutrients, carbon forms, stoichiometry, litter mass and pH). The results show that the variability of both litter quality and SIR rates was more important at large than at small scales. SIR rates varied between 1.1 and 4.0 μg g⁻¹ h⁻¹ and were significantly correlated with litter layer quality (up to 50% of the variability explained by the best mixed linear model). Total litter P content was the individual most important factor explaining the observed spatial variation in soil SIR, with higher rates associated to high litter P. SIR rates also correlated positively with total litter N content and with increasing proportions of labile C compounds. However, contrary to our expectation, SIR rates were not related to litter stoichiometry. These data suggest that in the studied Amazonian rainforest, tree canopy composition is an important driver of the microbial respiration process via leaf litter fall, resulting in potentially strong plant-soil feedbacks.     

What about the children? The experience of families involved in an adult-focused diabetes intervention

OBJECTIVE: Among adults with diabetes attempting to change their own diets, we explored how these adults approached providing food for their children and how their children reacted to dietary changes in the household. DESIGN: The research design used semi-structured parallel individual interviews of adults and a child (aged 10-17 years) in their home. Interviews were audio-taped, transcribed, coded and analysed for themes. SUBJECTS: Subjects included families in which one inner-city African American or Latino adult with diabetes had completed a diabetes intervention promoting healthy dietary behaviours. RESULTS: We completed 29 interviews (14 adult-child pairs and one child). Adults approached making dietary changes for themselves and also providing food for their family in different ways, ranging from expecting everyone to eat the same thing to preparing two separate meals. Many children resisted dietary changes while fewer acquiesced. Among children who went along with changes, some reported resisting initially then adjusting, while others did not resist because the food still tasted good or they could obtain preferred foods outside the house. The intersection of adults' meal strategies and children's reactions to the changes can be used to categorise families into different patterns. These patterns highlight the tension between an adult who must make dietary changes to control diabetes and a child who is not necessarily motivated to change. CONCLUSION: From this framework we suggest hypotheses about how these patterns might influence dietary behaviour in adults and children. Understanding these patterns could guide interventions to assist parents in successfully including children in their dietary changes.     

Are differences in fitness traits related to genetic clusters? An empirical test on the European tree frog

Microsatellites are one of the preferred marker types to estimate the level of genetic diversity and subdivision in natural populations of endangered species. Many studies thereby attempted to identify genetically defined management units for conservation by applying a variety of genetic clustering methods. It is not clear, however, whether genetic clusters inferred from neutral molecular markers reflect differences in fitness or adaptation. In this study, I conducted a common garden experiment on the endangered European tree frog (Hyla arborea) to clarify whether fitness-related traits of larval development differed between three genetic groups defined by Bayesian clustering analysis. I reared larvae under semi-natural conditions and measured growth and developmental rates as well as survival at five larval stages from eclosion to completion of metamorphosis. Nested general and generalized linear models showed significant cluster differences for several variables in terms of smaller growth rates and body sizes at early larval stages. These differences were, however, probably not linked to adaptive divergence among clusters but rather to neutral genetic processes in the breeding sites of one cluster, which were spatially isolated and subject of recent bottlenecks. Hence, a genetic load effect (e.g. inbreeding depression) may have acted on the populations of this particular cluster. I advise studies aiming to define management units for conservation to not only use genetic clustering methods but to complement their findings with experimental approaches on fitness-related traits.     

What Constitutes Plant-Available Molybdenum in Sandy Acidic Soils?

Molybdenum (Mo) is critical for the function of enzymes related to nitrogen cycling. Concentrations of Mo are very low in sandy, acidic soils, and biologically available Mo is only a small fraction of the total pool. While several methods have been proposed to measure plant-available Mo, there has not been a recent comprehensive analytical study that compares soil extraction methods as predictors of plant Mo uptake. A suite of five assays [total acid microwave digestion, ethylenediamenetetraaacetic acid (EDTA) extraction, Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) protocol 3050B, ammonium oxalate extraction, and pressurized hot water] was employed, followed by the determination of soil Mo concentrations via inductively coupled mass spectroscopy. The concentrations of soil Mo determined from these assays and their relationships as predictors of plant Mo concentration were compared. The assays yielded different concentrations of Mo: total digest > EPA > ammonium oxalate ≥ EDTA > pressurized hot water. Legume foliar Mo concentrations were most strongly correlated with ammonium oxalate–extractable Mo from soils, but an oak species showed no relationship with any soil Mo fraction and foliar Mo. Bulk fine roots in the 10- to 30-cm soil horizon were significantly correlated with the ammonium oxalate Mo fraction. There were significant correlations between ammonium oxalate Mo and the oxides of iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), and aluminum (Al). Results suggest that the ammonium oxalate extraction for soil Mo is the best predictor of plant-available Mo for species with high Mo requirements such as legumes and that plant-available Mo tracks strongly with other metal oxides in sandy, acidic soils.     

The causes of the recent heavy elephant mortality in the Tsavo ecosystem,Kenya, 1975–1980

The causes of the recent heavy elephant mortality in the Tsavo ecosystem between 1975 and 1980 were investigated. Poaching and drought conditions were thought to be the main reason.Whether the cause of death was poaching or other factors was ascertained from the examination of carcasses in the field. In the former case the front part of the cranium was cut while those of the unpoached animals were intact. Rainfall data were analysed to assess whether drought conditions occurred during this period, which might have caused the recent mortality. Other possible causes of mortality were assessed from interviews with park wardens and rangers and from records on poaching incidents and ivory recoveries.The overall results of this study show that the recent heavy elephant mortality in Tsavo ecosystem was caused mainly by poaching preceded by drought. It is therefore recommended that future conservation measures for the remaining elephant population require control of poaching, especially in wet season dispersal areas which are not under park management.     

A study of variability in the Sicilian faba bean landrace ‘Larga di Leonforte’

In this paper molecular analysis, physical, technological, and chemical traits were used to estimate the level of variation on five accessions of a locally adapted Sicilian faba bean (Vicia faba L.) landrace named ‘Larga di Leonforte’. DNA analysis was performed using the Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism (AFLP) molecular marker class and two other faba beans (cv. ‘Aguadulce Samba’—Spain—and landrace ‘Locale di Modica’—Sicily) were used as controls. Although the accessions of ‘Larga di Leonforte’ varied significantly for most of the agronomical and physical traits, this landrace generally had a heavy seed weight, short but large pods, and no more than two seeds per pod. This last characteristic allowed for erect pod angle attitude at maturity. Idratation data showed difference among accessions in seed weight at full hydration and in absorption rate at the very beginning of the hydration process, while any difference among accessions emerged in terms of cooking properties. The six AFLP Eco+3/Mse+3 different primer combinations applied in this research revealed different levels of polymorphism among the faba bean accessions and a total number of 346 amplicons were generated. Around 60% of amplicons displayed a polymorphic pattern among different accessions. Cluster analysis on morphological, technological, chemical and molecular data placed the all five ‘Larga di Leonforte’ accessions into a separated group, and the Sicilian material shares a fairly large amount of similarity with respect to the cultivar ‘Aguadulce Samba’ selected in Spain.     

What are the limits of the drilosphere? An incubation experiment using Metaphire posthuma

The near infrared reflectance spectroscopy (NIRS) method was used in the present study to compare earthworm-made soil aggregates to aggregates found in the surrounding bulk soil. After initially assessing the daily cast production of Metaphire posthuma, boxes with soil incubated with M. posthuma and control soils were subjected to wetting in order to reorganize the soil structure. After two months of incubation, soil aggregates produced by earthworms (casts and burrows), soil aggregates that were appeared to be unaffected by earthworms (bulk soil without visible trace of earthworm bioturbation from the earthworm treatment) and soil aggregates that were entirely unaffected by earthworms (control – no earthworm – treatment) were sampled and their chemical signatures analyzed by NIRS. The production of below-ground and surface casts reached 14.9 g soil g worm^?1 d^?1 and 1.4 g soil g worm^?1 d^?1, respectively. Soil aggregates from the control soils had a significantly different NIRS signature from those sampled from boxes with earthworms. However, within the earthworm incubation boxes the NIRS signature was similar between cast and burrow aggregates and soil aggregates from the surrounding bulk soil. We conclude that the high cast production by M. posthuma and the regular reorganization of the soil structure by water flow in and through the soil lead to a relatively homogenous soil structure. Given these results, we question the relevance of considering the bulk soil that has no visible activity of earthworm activity as a control to determine the effect of earthworms on soil functioning.     

To What Extent Can Silviculture Enhance Sustainability of Forest Sites under the Immission Regime in Central Europe?

Stand structure and tree species composition influence not only the volume flux of soil water but also the concentration of dissolved minerals in the soil solution. We found much higher element fluxes under spruce than under beech stands. This is mainly caused by different activities of nitrate in the soil solution and by different deposition rates of nitrogen and acids from the atmosphere which were ±60% lower in beech stands than in spruce stands. In old spruce stands, the acid output with the seepage water was more or less equal to the input, whereas in beech stands most of the acid deposition was buffered. The nitrogen balance in beech stands was characterized by a net uptake of about 60% to 75% of the input. In spruce stands only 40% of the nitrogen input was incorporated. In a clear-cut, a high mobilization rate of nitrate was found in the first 5 years, resulting in nitrate concentrations above the threshold for drinking water quality. The cutting of even a single tree in a spruce stand caused heavy mineralization and nitrification for at least 2 years, which indicates that the system is near nitrogen saturation.     

A new soil test method for the determination of plant‐available cadmium in soils

Abstract

A new soil test procedure using 1M NH₄Cl was developed for the extraction of plant‐available cadmium (Cd) from soils. Five grams of soil is weighed into a 50‐mL polyethylene vial to which 30 mL of 1M NH₄Cl solution is added. The soil suspension is then shaken on a horizontal shaker for 16 h at 25°C at 180 cycles per min. The suspension is then centrifuged at 2,500g for 5 min and the supernatant filtered through a 0.45 μm nitrocellulose filter under vacuum. Cadmium in the extract is then determined at 228.8 nm on a graphite furnace equipped atomic absorption spectrophotometer. A highly significant correlation was observed between the natural logarithm (In) of 1M NH₄Cl‐extractable Cd in soils and the Cd content in the grain of durum wheat (Triticum turgidum var. durutn L.) grown on the same soils (r = 0.974, p = 3.8 x 10^‐7). In comparison with several commonly used extradants, such as ABDTPA, CaCl₂, NH₄OAc, and NH₄NO₃, the 1M NH₄Cl‐extracted Cd from soils was found to be a better index of Cd availability.     

What does IUCN species action planning contribute to the conservation process?

More than 60 Species Action Plans have been published by the Species Survival Commission (SSC) of IUCN—The World Conservation Union. They are designed to assess the status of threatened species and their habitats, and provide prioritised recommendations for action, but there is debate about the effectiveness of such plans in stimulating conservation action and research. We evaluated three Action Plans covering a group of large terrestrial birds, published in 1995. Of 54 projects suggested in these plans, 33 had been initiated in the 5 years since publication, and 35 specific conservation actions were undertaken. Forty-five peer-reviewed papers were published, and at least 88 other outputs in the form of symposium presentations, posters and popular articles were produced. Although it is impossible to demonstrate the effectiveness of species action planning through rigorous scientific assessment, these results indicate a substantial amount of conservation-relevant activity directly attributable to the process. They also highlight the need for a clear definition of the role of Action Plans. We suggest that many of the criticisms directed toward species action plans result from an over-optimistic view of their power to catalyse action, and conclude by presenting a new model describing their niche within the wider context of conservation biology and policy.     

Duration of the standard earthworm avoidance test: Are 48 h necessary?

Ecotoxicological tests are often recommended for the environmental risk assessment (ERA) of contaminated soils. In comparison to chemical residue analysis that focuses on individual contaminants, ecotoxicological tests are able to integrate the effects of the overall contamination, including interactions between individual contaminants, as well as between the contaminants and the various soil properties. However, their use is limited by the fact that the most sensitive tests are chronic tests such as the earthworm reproduction test which lasts 56 days. In order to promote the use of ecotoxicological tests for the routine assessment of contaminated test soils, the usage of short-term earthworm avoidance tests were investigated in the German project ERNTE. According to the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) guideline no. 17512-1, such a test has a duration of just 48 h which, although less than chronic tests, is still quite long in comparison to modern methods of chemical analysis whereby results are often available within 24 h (“on-site analysis”). Therefore, we assessed the effects of shortening the duration of the earthworm avoidance test from 48 to 24 h on the resulting ecotoxicological data. Eight uncontaminated natural soils and 22 contaminated natural soils containing a wide range of chemicals were tested concurrently for 24 and 48 h. Additionally, seven of the uncontaminated natural soils (one was excluded due to its low pH) plus Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) artificial soil or LUFA (Landwirtschaftliche Untersuchungs- und Forschungsanstalt, Speyer, Germany) St. 2.2 soil were spiked with two model chemicals (zinc nitrate-tetrahydrate and tributyltin-oxide (TBT-O)) and tested accordingly. It was also investigated whether the results would differ when using either standard LUFA St. 2.2 or OECD artificial soil as a control when contaminated natural soils were tested. Statistical analysis of the data indicates that a decrease in test duration in general did not result in a different assessment of the test soils. In view of the fact that an ERA of contaminated soils is increasingly starting with an on-site analysis (i.e. data are available within 24 h) it is recommended to change the existing ISO guideline, i.e. to decrease the test duration from 48 to 24 h. In doing so, the use of a multi-concentration design increases the robustness of the test results. Both OECD and LUFA St. 2.2 soils are equally suitable as controls.     

Conservation problems in the norfolk broads and rivers of East Anglia,England—Phytoplankton,boats and the causes of turbidity

The Norfolk Broads and rivers of eastern England (Fig. 1) comprise an area hitherto farmed for the diversity of its wildlife and submerged aquatic plant communities. The latter have progressively disappeared since the early 1950s, until only four sites currently retain more than remnants of the original sub-aquatic macrophyte flora and its associated invertebrate fauna. Increases in turbidity of the water have been associated with the loss of macrophytes, and these increase have been variously attributed to phytoplankton and to disturbance of sediment by the many boats of visiting tourist and residents. Synoptic surveys of turbidity were carried out in the navigable waterways of Broadland in summer and winter 1973, and of phytoplankton in summer 1973. The differential distribution of phytoplankton is discussed in terms of the nutrient loadings on, and flushing coefficients of, the waterway. Highly significant correlations were obtained between phytoplankton numbers and turbidity in the system as a whole and Broads and rivers considered separately. A very weak correlation between boat activity and turbidity was shown to be non-causative. It is concluded that increase in turbidity is a function of increased nutrient loading from human activities in the catchment area and that boat disturbance does not contribute significantly to the sustained turbidity.     

Evaluation of the “bait-lamina test” to assess soil microfauna feeding activity in mixed grassland

The soil fauna plays an important role in regulating nutrient cycling through predation and comminution of organic residues. The bait-lamina test was proposed as a practical mean to assess soil faunal feeding activity. The test consists of vertically inserting 16-hole-bearing plastic strips filled with a plant material preparation into the soil. We assessed the value of the bait-lamina test in the mixed grassland ecoregion of Canada, using 5-year-old seeded grass field plots. There were five treatments of grass communities, i.e. monocultures of (1) Russian wild rye, (2) switchgrass, (3) green needlegrass, or (4) western wheatgrass, and (5) a grass mixture of western wheatgrass + green needlegrass + switchgrass + little blue stem, which were distributed in four complete blocks, and six bait mix treatments, i.e. bait made with ground tissue of (1) Russian wild rye, (2) switchgrass, (3) green needlegrass, (4) western wheatgrass, (5) alfalfa, or with (6) wheat bran, which were randomized in each plot. Bait-lamina strips were used in groups of five strips inserted in the soil; they were equally spaced across the inter-row. The analysis revealed a marginally significant effect (P = 0.065) of plant community on soil faunal feeding activity with more activity in mixed grass species compared to green needlegrass plots. Bait flavour had no significant effect (P = 0.22) on feeding. More (P < 0.0005) feeding activity was detected close to the soil surface (0–5 mm deep) than at 20 mm below the surface and at deeper depths. Feeding activity was relatively low over the 65-day period of the test (13 June to 17 August 2005), with 8.3% and 2.0% of the lamina (holes filled) showing signs of feeding in the 0–5 and 5–15 mm soil layer. We conclude that the bait-lamina test is appropriate to assess the activity of surface litter processing fauna in mixed grassland, but it is not a good indicator of the decomposition occurring in the soil matrix, where most litter is produced. We recommend the use of a large number of replicated bait-lamina strips and a whole growing season incubation period in soils of the semiarid prairie ecoregion where the surface litter layer is thin and faunal saprobes are relatively scarce.