Surface heterogeneity and the spatial variation of fluxes

An integral scale of surface heterogeneity is defined in terms of the structure function of surface properties (surface temperature and albedo) and related to flux measurements taken during the NOPEX experiment. The spatial variation of the sensible and latent heat fluxes is shown to be related to this structure function. Although the surface heterogeneity clearly influences the spatial variation of the fluxes, the variance of the fluxes scales under mixed layer scaling and not the heterogeneity of the underlying surface.     

Using instrumented bulldozers to map spatial variation in the strength of regolith for bauxite mine floor rehabilitation

The high strength of some regolith types can limit the growth of rehabilitated jarrah forest following bauxite mining in southwest Australia. Ripping mine floors to a depth of 1.5 m alleviates high strength zones and improves root exploration of substrates. Understanding the variability of regolith strength at the mine pit scale may be useful for improving site-specific ripping and reducing rehabilitation costs. Regolith strength maps were developed based on real-time, field measurement of the hydraulic fluid pressure in the tilt cylinders of Komatsu 475 and Caterpillar D11R bulldozers operating at an average speed of 0.8 ms⁻¹ with standard tip, single shank deep-ripping tines. The strength maps rank regolith into strength classes and show positions of low-, medium-, high- and extreme strength zones in the floors of former opencast bauxite mines. Maps were evaluated using strength measurements on excavated regolith profiles revealing a reliable relationship between bulldozer-mapped regolith strength and actual regolith strength. Weighted unconfined compression strength for mine floor materials within a regolith profile can be grouped as follows: saprolite <4000 kN/m²; quartz-rich, sandy clay (Zm) and silty clay (Zp) 1000–4000 kN/m²; ferruginous/gibbsitic (cemented) material (Zh) 4000–8000 kN/m²; and granite or dolerite rock and hard saprock 5000–14,000 kN/m². Ripper hydraulic pressure was linearly related to the weighted unconfined compression strength (kN/m²) of classified regolith profiles (r² = +0.47). The instrumented bulldozer mapping technique can partly distinguish between classified regolith types, particularly granite and granitic saprock (>75 bar) and dolerite and doleritic saprock (25–75 bar). Some regolith types including: quartz-rich, sandy clay; silty clay; and soft saprolite have low bulldozer-measured strength (25 bar) and are indistinguishable by the bulldozer. Regolith strength maps may improve the targeting of secondary contour ripping to parts of a mine floor where it is most-needed.     

Modeling spatial variation in productivity due to tillage and water erosion

The advent of precision farming practices has heightened interest in managing field variability to optimize profitability. The large variation in yields across many producer fields demonstrated by yield–monitor–equipped combines has generated concern about management-induced causes of spatial variation in soil productivity. Soil translocation from erosion processes may result in variation in soil properties across field landscape positions that produce long-term changes in soil productivity. The objective of this study was to examine the relationships between soil redistribution caused by tillage and water erosion and the resulting spatial variability of soil productivity in a soil catena in eastern South Dakota. An empirical model developed to estimate tillage erosion was used to evaluate changes expected in the soil profile over a 50-year period on a typical toposequence found in eastern South Dakota and western Minnesota. Changes in the soil profile due to water erosion over a 50-year period were evaluated using the WEPP hillslope model. The tillage erosion model and the WEPP hillslope model were run concurrently for a 50-year period to evaluate the combined effect of the two processes. The resulting changes in soil properties of the root zone were evaluated for changes in productivity using a productivity index model. Tillage erosion resulted in soil loss in the shoulder position, while soil loss from water erosion occurred primarily in the mid to lower backslope position. The decline in soil productivity was greater when both processes were combined compared to either process acting alone. Water erosion contributed to nearly all the decline in soil productivity in the backslope position when both tillage and water erosion processes were combined. The net effect of soil translocation from the combined effects of tillage and water erosion is an increase in spatial variability of crop yields and a likely decline in overall soil productivity.     

Partitioning the spatial and environmental variation of Sclerotinia stem rot on soybean

The variance in survival of Sclerotinia sclerotiorum's sclerotia, carpogenic germination (apothecia) as well as Sclerotinia stem rot (SSR) severity (Disease Severity Index (DSI)) on soybean was partitioned among canopy, soil physico-chemistry and microbiology, cultural practices (2 or 3-y-corn rotation/soybean monoculture and mineral fertilization/urban compost), and spatial matrices in two soils. Partial multiple regression was used to partition the individual SSR variables variance while partial canonical redundancy analysis partitioned the DSI-apothecia and apothecia-survival variance. In clay loam, the sclerotial survival and apothecia variance were mainly explained by the spatial structure of soil physico-chemistry while the DSI did not share this spatial structure and was largely explained by the effects of 3-y-corn rotation on canopy and soil, i.e. lower weed biomass, enhanced soybean yield and fewer apothecia were correlated with disease suppressiveness. In sandy loam, the DSI variance was mostly explained by the spatial structure of canopy and physico-chemistry. Disease suppressiveness, by the interaction of 3-y-corn rotation with urban compost, was largely explained by the enhancement of soil properties, i.e. higher aggregate stability, microbial activity and soil solution concentration in exchangeable ions correlated negatively with carpogenic germination. Partitioning the SSR variance among four matrices of spatial and environmental factors allowed for the first time to interpret and quantify the variance of disease development explained by cultural practices in interaction with the main characteristics of this agroecosystem.     

水土保持小流域综合治理的作用

<正> 我国是一个多山的国家,山丘面积占国土面积的2/3。由于自然因素和不合理的人为活动,水土流失十分严重。据50年代初期统计,全国水力侵蚀面积150万平方公里,给国民经济带来多方面的危害。因而防治水土流失,就成为我国一项艰巨的任务和基本国策。新中国成立后,水土保持工作逐步开展起来,经过三十多年的实践,积累了丰富的经验,小流域综合治理,就是其中一项十分成功的办法。这项经验,经1980年召开会议,进行了系统总结后,在全国范围内推广。据不完全统计,近几年各省安排重点     

Short-range spatial variation of nitrous oxide fluxes in relation to compaction and straw residues

The spatial heterogeneity of N₂O flux at short distances (0.1–2 m) was characterized in relation to various soil physical and chemical properties and the location of incorporated crop residues in arable soils. Plots were prepared with uniform compaction (either zero or compacted by a laden two‐wheel‐drive tractor) in two field experiments, one under winter barley (Hordeum vulgare), the other under oil‐seed rape (Brassica napus). Flux measurements were made of N₂O using small chambers (7.3 cm diameter) placed at intervals of approximately 10 cm along a transect (c. 2 m long) across the direction of application of the treatments of compaction and residue incorporation. The flux of N₂O and many other measurements showed large variation over short distances, particularly when fluxes were small. The spatial variation of the flux was not closely related to the soil properties. Correlations showed that cone resistance, air permeability and closeness to incorporated residues were as important as soil NO₃, NH₄ and soluble C in determining flux of N₂O from non‐compacted soils. Most properties of compacted soils did not correlate with N₂O flux. Correlation and multiple regression analysis failed to establish consistent relations between soil environmental variables and N₂O flux, but principal component regression indicated that, overall, N₂O flux increased with decreasing distance from straw residues and air permeability, and with increasing cone resistance and wet bulk density.     

土地开发对农田土壤养分和盐分变异特征的影响

利用地统计学方法研究了新疆库尔勒市包头湖农场土地开发后土壤空间变异特征。结果表明:土地开发后种植区的土壤有机质和盐分降低,有效磷含量增加,碱解氮含量变化不大;尤其是土地开发后撂荒地土壤有机质含量下降明显。土壤盐分与有机质、碱解氮及速效钾的含量均呈显著正相关,与有效磷呈显著负相关。因此,土地开发后需增施有机肥,补充钾肥,并尽可能不撂荒。     

江苏省土地资源禀赋度空间变化研究

本文从土地数量、质量、结构和效益等方面构建了土地资源禀赋度评价指标体系,并采用多边形综合指标法对江苏全省各市县土地资源禀赋现状及空间变化进行了研究。结果表明:①江苏省土地资源禀赋度差异显著,呈现由南向北先递减后递增的规律,总体上苏南好于苏北好于苏中;②1996—2006十年间各市县土地资源禀赋度总体有所下降;③今后应根据区域特点,采取针对措施,提高区域土地资源禀赋度。     

The spatial and temporal variation of the sulphate to nitrate ratio in precipitation in eastern North America

Four years of precipitation chemistry data for eastern North America were used to investigate seasonal and geographical variations in \({\text{SO}}_{\text{4}}^{\text{ = }} {\text{/NO}}_{\text{3}}^{\text{ - }} \) ratio. Several distinct regimes occur. One, in the region of heaviest acidic deposition extending from the states south of the Great Lakes across New England and southeastern Canada, has a very strong seasonal variation in the \({\text{SO}}_{\text{4}}^{\text{ = }} {\text{/NO}}_{\text{3}}^{\text{ - }} \) molar ratio in deposition. The ratio ranges from about 1.5 in summer to about 0.5 in winter. Another, in the smaller area of Texas and surrounding states, shows the reverse seasonal pattern. Yet another, in the high plains states, has a double maximum in the ratio in Spring and Fall. The remainder of the region has an irregular seasonal pattern. Insight into the cause of \({\text{SO}}_{\text{4}}^{\text{ = }} {\text{/NO}}_{\text{3}}^{\text{ - }} \) variations was obtained using a simple chemical transport box model. It showed that the chemical transformation of S0₂ and NO_x in the atmosphere is a major factor. A comparison of model predictions and observations indicate that in the vicinity of mid-western American sources the molar ratio of amount of S0₂ oxidized in-cloud to that of N0₂ is O.5 in winter and 1.5 in summer.     

Observations on the spatial and temporal variation in the phosphorus status of lakes in the British Isles

Abstract. An examination of total phosphorus (TP) concentrations from 902 lakes in England, Scotland and Northern Ireland (NI), suggest that only Scottish lakes have a high percentage (73%) of oligotrophic waters (TP<10 μg PI^-1). The TP status of upland lakes in NI was greater than Scottish lakes particularly if lake catchments were afforested. Although lowland lakes in NI drain a predominately non-urbanized landscape, 38% of lakes below 100 m had TP concentrations > 100 μg PI^-1 and only 29% <35 μg PI^-1. English lakes tended to have higher TP concentrations (70% > 101 μg PI^-1) which may reflect P inputs from sewage treatment works (STWs) although lakes draining agricultural catchments frequently produced high TP concentrations. Between 1985 and 1995, annual point source TP inputs to Loch Leven, Scotland, declined by 8 tonnes P or 40% of the 1985 TP loadings to the Loch. As point source inputs were proportionally richer in dissolved molybdate reactive phosphorus (MRP) than diffuse inputs, the MRP loading was reduced by 46%. From 1974 to 1995, TP concentrations in Lough Neagh (NI) increased despite reduced TP inputs from STWs. Partitioning of annual TP loadings from two major inflowing rivers to Lough Neagh, showed river MRP loadings from non-point sources had been increasing at annual rates of 1.9 and 2.3 kg P km^-2. The remaining non-MRP river loadings had not been influenced by lower TP loads from STWs and showed no tendency to increase with time. Insufficient data is available from other lake systems in the British Isles to judge whether the increase in non-point source MRP loadings observed in the Lough Neagh catchment has been repeated elsewhere.     

Using neighbourhood statistics and GIS to quantify and visualize spatial variation in geochemical variables: An example using Ni concentrations in the topsoils of Northern Ireland

Spatial variation is a typical feature of geochemical variables, providing a challenge for sampling design and environmental monitoring. It is generally qualitatively but not quantitatively described using spatial distribution maps. In this study, the feasibility of quantifying spatial variation is investigated using neighbourhood statistics within a GIS environment, using, as an example, near-total Ni concentrations in the surface soils of Northern Ireland. A total of 6138 topsoil samples were collected at an average sampling density close to 1 sample per km². At this sampling density it was possible to calculate neighbourhood statistics directly from the raw data. Neighbourhood statistics of local mean, local standard deviation and local coefficient of variation were calculated using window sizes of 3 km × 3 km, 6 km × 6 km, 9 km × 9 km, 12 km × 12 km, 24 km × 24 km and 48 km × 48 km and visualized using GIS mapping techniques. The results showed that the highest soil Ni concentrations were located in the northern part of Northern Ireland where basalt is the main rock type. Lowest soil Ni concentrations were found in the western region of the Province on schist and limestone geologies. The granite area in the south-eastern region of Northern Ireland also displayed low soil Ni values. In terms of assessing the degree of spatial variation, high local standard deviation values were found to be associated with high local mean values thereby limiting the usefulness of local standard deviation as an indicator of spatial variation. This effect did not occur when local coefficient of variation values were used in place of local standard deviation so the coefficient of variation values are recommended as a more appropriate indicator to quantify spatial variation. The strongest spatial variations were observed on the western edge of the basalt area along the boundary of the basalt–sandstone areas and the schist area. Within each rock type, spatial variations were relatively weak and this was most clearly demonstrated in the basalt area. As the window size used for calculation of neighbourhood statistics was increased, so too was the resulting smoothing effect which led to clearer patterns but with loss of detail in the spatial variation observed. Neighbourhood statistics, coupled to a GIS, were found to be an effective way of quantifying and visualizing spatial variation in environmental geochemistry.     

Multiscale sources of spatial variation in soil. I. The application of fractal concepts to nested levels of soil variation

Soil variation has often been considered to be composed of‘functional’ or ‘systematic’ variation that can be explained, and random variation (‘noise’) that is unresolved. The distinction between systematic variation and noise is entirely scale dependent because increasing the scale of observation almost always reveals structure in the noise. The white noise concept of a normally distributed random function must be replaced to take into account the nested, autocorrelated and scale-dependent nature of unresolved variations. Fractals are a means of studying these phenomena. The Hausdorff-Besicovitch dimension D is introduced as a measure of the relative balance between long- and short-range sources of variation; D can be estimated from the slope of a double logarithmic plot of the semivariogram. The family of Brownian linear fractals is introduced as the model of ideal stochastic fractals. Data from published and unpublished soil studies are examined and compared with other environmental data and simulated fractional Brownian series. The soil data are fractals because increasing the scale of observation continues to reveal more and more detail. But soil does not vary exactly as a Brownian fractal because its variation is controlled by many independent processes that can cause abrupt transitions or local second order stationarity. Estimates of D values show that soil data usually have a much higher proportion of short-range variation than landform or ground water surfaces. The practical implication is that interpolation of soil property values based on observations from single 10 cm auger observations will be unsatisfactory and that some method of bulking or block kriging should be used whenever longrange variations need to be mapped.     

流域侵蚀强度空间分异及动态变化模拟研究

流域侵蚀强度空间分异是小流域泥沙来源研究的重要内容之一。该文以小流域模型模拟试验为基础，利用人工模拟降雨、近景摄影测量和GIS技术，对流域模型不同空间部位的侵蚀强度及其随流域所处发育阶段的动态变化进行了研究。研究结果表明：依据次降雨相对侵蚀模数REM将历经25场模拟降雨的小流域模型发育过程划分为初期时段、活跃时段和稳定时段。沟谷侵蚀强度在整个流域模型发育过程中一直大于坡面；在流域发育初期时段至活跃时段前期，主沟侵蚀强度大于支沟，流域下部侵蚀强度大于中部和上部；在流域发育活跃时段后期，主沟侵蚀强度低于支沟，流域中部和下部侵蚀强度快速增长并达到峰值；在稳定期时段，主沟和支沟侵蚀强度变化趋于同步，流域上部的侵蚀强度高于中部和下部。流域侵蚀强度的时空分布特征对于小流域水土流失综合治理具有科学指导意义。     

2000-2020年南疆地区棉花种植空间格局及其变化特征分析

南疆地区是中国棉花的重要产区。综合全面了解南疆地区棉花种植空间格局及其变化特征对各级政府部门制定相关决策、保障国家粮棉供给、促进中国棉纺织工业加速发展具有重要意义。该研究以MODIS EVI数据为基础，应用TIMESAT软件平台集成的Double-Logistic滤波对棉花生长曲线进行重构，根据曲线特点提取阈值，进而提取南疆地区棉花种植信息，分析其种植空间格局及其变化特征。结果表明：1）南疆地区棉花主要分布在天山山脉南侧，形成以阿克苏地区为核心，喀什东北部及巴州北部为边缘的"核心-边缘"结构；2）近20 a南疆地区棉花种植面积增加103.17万hm2，年均棉花面积增长5.16万hm2，主要来源于耕地（76.85%）与草地（11.91%）；3）棉花分布在空间上呈"东北-西南"走向，棉花种植重心近20 a总移动距离91.5 km，年移动速率4.58 km/a，基本稳定保持在阿克苏市境内；4）南疆地区棉花种植面积冷点主要分布在克州以及和田地区，2005年后逐渐向西南侧集聚；热点分布格局年际变化显著，2005年前主要分布在阿克苏地区，2005年后逐渐向南疆地区东北侧延伸，主要集中在阿克苏地区以及巴州地区北部。研究成果可为制定区域国土管理制度和涉棉企业科学决策提供参考，对调整和优化棉花结构布局具有积极作用。     

Effect of forest structure on the spatial variation in soil respiration in a Bornean tropical rainforest

This study was undertaken to identify critical and practical factors explaining spatial variations in soil respiration and to estimate stand-scale soil respiration in an aseasonal tropical rainforest on Borneo Island. To this aim, we conducted soil respiration measurements at 25 points in a 40 m × 40 m subplot of a 4 ha study plot between 2002 and 2006, and examined the spatial variation in soil respiration averaged over the 4 years in relation to soil, root, and forest structural factors. In addition, we examined the spatial representativeness of soil respiration measured in the subplot using a specific scaling procedure. Consequently, we found significant positive correlation between the soil respiration and forest structural parameters such as the mean diameter at breast height (DBH), total basal area, and maximum DBH within 6 m of the measurement points. The most important factor was the mean DBH within 6 m of the measurement points, which had a significant linear relationship with soil respiration. Using the derived linear regression and an inventory dataset, we estimated the 4 ha plot-scale soil respiration. The 4 ha plot-scale estimation (6.0 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹) was nearly identical to the subplot-scale measurements (5.7 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹), which were roughly comparable to the nocturnal CO₂ fluxes calculated using the eddy covariance technique. In addition, we discuss characteristics of the stand-scale soil respiration at this site by comparing with those of other forests reported in previous literature in terms of the soil C balance. Soil respiration at our site was noticeably greater, relative to the incident litterfall amount, than soil respiration in other tropical and temperate forests probably owing to the larger total belowground C allocation by emergent trees. Overall, this study suggests the arrangement of emergent trees with larger DBH and their belowground C allocation could be primary factors controlling spatial variations in soil respiration in the tropical rainforest.     

Integrating soil map information in modelling the spatial variation of continuous soil properties

This paper presents two indicator algorithms that integrate soil map information into modelling the spatial variation of continuous soil properties: these are simple indicator kriging with varying means and the Markov–Bayes algorithm. Both methods are used to evaluate probabilities for copper and cobalt deficiencies in the Borders Region of Scotland. Results are compared with maps obtained by the polygonal method (Thiessen polygons) and an indicator kriging algorithm that does not use soil map information. Accounting for soil map information is shown to improve delineation of the deficient areas, especially where the sampling is sparse. Test locations are classified as deficient or not so as to minimize an expected cost of mis-classification that is derived from local probability distributions of copper or cobalt and functions measuring the cost of overestimating or underestimating metal concentrations. The comparison of classification results with actual copper and cobalt concentrations at test locations shows that the two proposed algorithms can decrease substantially the economic loss attached to misclassification.     

三江平原现代农业区景观生态安全时空分异分析

作为与自然关系紧密的生态产业,现代农业不仅是经济社会发展和粮食安全保障的基础,其生态安全也是生态文明建设的重要内容。该研究以位于中国三江平原现代农业区的国营友谊农场为研究区域,以1984年、1995年、2004年和2014年4期Landsat TM/OLI影像为主要数据来源,以景观格局安全指数和生态质量指数为变量构建现代农业区景观生态安全评价模型,对近30 a来研究区的景观生态安全时空分异进行分析。结果表明:研究区景观生态安全格局变化明显,4个时期研究区的景观生态安全指数依次为0.65、0.57、0.55和0.60,整体呈现出先下降后回升的趋势;景观生态安全值的空间集聚性呈先增加后降低的趋势,生态安全分布的热点和冷点面积比例持续降低,不显著区域的面积比例持续增加。研究结果一方面说明农业开发对景观生态系统具有一定的负面影响,另一方面也说明积极的土地整治对景观生态安全具有促进作用,为此,后续的土地整治工作应在促进现代农业发展的同时,保障土地资源的可持续利用。     

基于SPEI和TVDI的河南省干旱时空变化分析

近年来干旱在中国频发且影响不断加剧,因此监测干旱对气候变化、农业生产都有重要意义。基于1961-2016年56年的气象资料,利用标准化降水蒸散指数(SPEI)定量地分析了河南省不同时间尺度(1、3、6和12个月)的干旱发生的时空变化特征和强度;另外采用温度植被干旱指数(TVDI)分析了河南省的区域面积上的干旱空间变化,并探讨了SPEI和TVDI的相关性。结果表明:1961-2016年56 a间,SPEI值在各时间尺度上都呈微弱的湿润化,随着时间尺度的增大,SPEI值波动幅度减小;河南省各地区干旱分布不均匀,发生干旱年的是1961、1965、1966、1968、1972、1976、1978、1981、1986、1988、1997、2001、2013共13年,与实际情况较为一致。在月时间尺度上,SPEI与TVDI的相关性分析表明,SPEI-1与TVDI呈负相关关系,即TVDI越小,SPEI的值越大,干旱程度越轻;TVDI越大,SPEI的值越小,干旱程度越严重。研究结果可为河南省干旱影响评估提供参照标准。     

Temporal and spatial variation in carabid assemblages from the United Kingdom Environmental Change Network

This paper presents analyses of the data from the first 7 years of the UK Environmental Change Network (ECN) carabid monitoring programme. The 10 ECN terrestrial sites for which results are available represent a wide range of habitats, from lowland arable farmland to upland moorland, and correspondence analysis reveals the strong association between habitat and species composition. At all sites carabid assemblages are dominated by a small proportion of the species found at the site. There are strong year-to-year fluctuations in the proportions of individual species and a large percentage of species are observed only sporadically. This has major implications for the conservation and monitoring of carabids. Simple summary statistics, such as species richness or diversity do not adequately reflect variation in species composition and are unlikely to respond quickly to environmental change. The considerable annual variation makes the detection of relationships with sources of environmental change a difficult task, particularly for the rarer species of primary conservation interest. Analysis should therefore include measures based on the dominant species to provide an early warning system for environmental change.     

Atmospheric deposition to remote receptors II. Temporal and spatial variation of inorganic ion species in precipitation over the Ilwas-network

Water, Air, & Soil Pollution - Measurements of SO4 −, NO3 −, Cl−, NH4 +, Ca++, Mg++ Na+, K+, pH, and specific conductance, were made on a precipitation event basis (defined as...