Effect of soybean cultivar on life history parameters of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Tetranychus urticae</Emphasis> Koch (Acari: Tetranychidae)

The two-spotted spider mite, Tetranychus urticae Koch, is a very polyphagous pest with a worldwide distribution. In order to appraise population growth parameters of this pest, samples of two-spotted spider mites were taken from soybean (Glycine max) fields of Moghan region, Iran in June 2007 and are reared on bean plants var. Derakhshan (Phaseolus vulgaris) in a growth chamber. The life table parameters of this pest were calculated on three commercial soybean cultivars (Zane, Hach, and L17) and one hybrid (Hob × Will) at 25 ± 1°C, 60 ± 10%RH, and 16 h photophase. The developmental times of immature stages varied from 9.69 on Hach to 9.82 days on L17, whereas the immature survival was 57–79% on Hach and Hob × Will, respectively. On average, there were 65.5, 40.8, 38.8 and 34 eggs produced per female on L17, Hach, Hob × Will and Zane, respectively. The intrinsic rate of natural increase (r _m ) for T. urticae on Hob × Will was the highest, whereas the values for r _m ranged from 0.211 (females/female/day) on Zane to 0.292 on Hob × Will. Also, jackknife values of other life table parameters such as net reproductive rate (R ₀), generation times (T), doubling time (DT), and finite rate of increase (λ) on these cultivars were estimated. Overall, the two-spotted spider mite indicated a better performance on Hob × Will than on the other soybean cultivars.     

Fogging can control<Emphasis Type="Italic"> Tetranychus urticae</Emphasis> on greenhouse cucumbers

The effect of a fogging system on interactions between Tetranychus urticae and Phytoseiulus persimilis was studied in two cucumber greenhouses in northern Italy. The greenhouses were divided into two compartments, one (referred to as fog area) was humidified using a fogging system and the other was not humidified (no fog area). Four cultivars were investigated: Akito and Frontera during 2000, Dinero and Jazzer during 2001. Tetranychus urticae was released on a number of plants in both compartments. The release of P. persimilis was planned in both compartments at definite T. urticae thresholds. Phytoseiid releases failed, and the colonization by other predators was scarce.Thus, the effect of the fogging system was evaluated only on T. urticae populations. During the first experimental year, spider mite populations reached low densities in the fog area of both cultivars. Higher densities were found in the no fog area, especially in late June and early July. One year later, spider mites were more abundant in the no fog area of the Dinero cultivar. On the Jazzer cultivar, where most plants were infected by powdery mildew, spider mites were less abundant and differences between the two areas were less marked. Since relative humidity values exceeding 90% (considered as effective on T. urticae) were recorded during the night when the fogging system was not active, we suggest that contact with misty water was the main factor responsible for the reduction of T. urticae populations in the fog area.     

<Emphasis Type="Italic">Bursaphelenchus mucronatus</Emphasis> (Nematoda: Aphelenchoididae) vectored by <Emphasis Type="Italic">Monochamus </Emphasis><Emphasis Type="Italic">urussovi</Emphasis> (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae) in Hokkaido,Japan

Bursaphelenchus mucronatus Mamiya et Enda has been recovered for the first time from adults of the cerambycid beetle, Monochamus urussovi (Fischer), in Hokkaido, Japan. The nematode was also recovered from the inner bark of Picea jezoensis (Siebold et Zuccarini) Carrière and Abies sachalinensis (Fr Schmidt) Masters infested with M. urussovi larvae. PCR–RFLP analysis indicated that B. mucronatus in Hokkaido is the European type.     

The abundance of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Orius niger</Emphasis> (Wolf.) and <Emphasis Type="Italic">O. minutus</Emphasis> (L.) in potato fields and their life table parameters when fed on two prey species

Two-spotted spider mite (TSSM) and onion thrips are serious pests of potatoes in the Ardabil region (Iran). In the present study, anthocorid species were identified in potato fields of this region during 2006 and 2007. The results of the abundance study indicate that Orius niger (Wolff) and O. minutus (Linnaeus) are major predators of these pests in potato fields. The life table parameters of these predators were compared when they were fed 2nd instar larvae of onion thrips or female TSSM on potato leaves. In these experiments, O. niger had a lower nymphal mortality, longer oviposition period, higher net reproductive rate (R ₀), and higher intrinsic rate of natural increase (r _m ) when fed thrips instead of mites. O. minutus feeding on mites compare to thrips had a lower nymphal mortality, longer oviposition period, higher net reproductive rate, and higher intrinsic rate of natural increase. Based on these results, it can be concluded that these predators could be useful as biological agents in potato fields.     

Laboratory and field evaluation of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Beauveria bassiana</Emphasis> for controlling Mulberry whitefly <Emphasis Type="Italic">Pealius mori</Emphasis> Takahashi (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae) in mulberry (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Morus alba</Emphasis> Linn)

In a laboratory screening of 12 isolates of entomopathogenic fungi against nymphs of the mulberry whitefly (Pealius mori Takahashi), Beauveria bassiana (Balsamo-Crivelli) Vuillemin CKB-048 was the most virulent, causing 87 ± 3% mortality at 1 × 10⁶ conidia/ml. Infection was confirmed by growth of the fungus from cadavers and by scanning electron microscopy of treated nymphs. Beauveria bassiana CKB-048 was formulated as a wettable powder (1 × 10⁹ conidia/g) and tested in two mulberry (Morus alba Linn) plantations in central and northeastern Thailand. In both locations, two spray applications of B. bassiana CKB-048 at 3.75 × 10¹² to 6.25 × 10¹² conidia/ha and at 14 day intervals provided good control of whitefly nymphs; control with B. bassiana CKB-048 was comparable to that with the pesticide buprofezin at 250 g of active ingredient/ha. In addition, no mortality of silkworm larvae occurred when the larvae were fed with mulberry leaves sprayed with B. bassiana CKB-048 7, 14, or 21 days earlier.     

Inheritance and detoxification enzyme levels in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Tetranychus urticae</Emphasis> Koch (Acari: Tetranychidae) strain selected with chlorpyrifos

Changes in insecticide susceptibilities and detoxifying enzyme activities were measured in a strain of Tetranychus urticae Koch following repeated exposure to the organophosphate insecticide, chlorpyrifos. Twelve consecutive selection at the LC₆₀ of the parental strain increased resistance from 8.58 to 91.45 fold. The interaction of some synergists [piperonyl butoxide, triphenyl phosphate and S-benzyl-O,O-diisopropyl phosphorothioate (IBP)] with chlorpyrifos was analyzed in the selected strain. Solely IBP showed a low synergistic effect with chlorpyrifos. The selected strain also demonstrated resistance against abamectin, propargite, clofentezine and fenpyroximate. The mode of resistance inheritance to chlorpyrifos was found to be incompletely dominant, and not sex-linked. Non-specific esterase enzyme activity was raised from 19.35 to 33.59 mOD/min/mg proteins during the selection period and it was observed that esterase band intensities visualized by polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis increased. This study has investigated the selection of resistance to chlorpyrifos and documented resistance to abamectin, propargite, clofentezine and fenpyroximate in Turkish T. urticae. Esterase enzymes may be playing a role in chlorpyrifos resistance while glutathione S-transferase (GST) and P450 enzymes do not appear to have any significant involvement.     

Damage assessment of the leafhopper complex [<Emphasis Type="Italic">Asymmetrasca decedens</Emphasis> (Paoli) and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Empoasca decipiens</Emphasis> Paoli] (Homoptera: Cicadellidae) in cotton

The leafhoppers [Asymmetrasca decedens (Paoli) and Empoasca decipiens Paoli] have only recently become significant pests of cotton in Turkey. Action threshold level (ATL) of this pest complex is uncertain. The effect of leafhoppers on fruit set and development and yields of glabrous varieties, Caroline Queen, Çukurova 1518 and SG 125 was compared under sprayed (at the ATL of ten leafhoppers per leaf) or unsprayed conditions in 2002–2003. Comparisons of sprayed and unsprayed cotton showed that leafhoppers significantly reduced numbers of fruit and yield. Total losses of the fruiting parts (square plus boll) were similar, ranging from 35 to 55% as well as cotton losses varied from 35 to 50%. Numbers of sucking insects (cotton aphid, whitefly and thrips) and also lepidopterian pests (pink bollworm and bollworm) were very low in both years, and they did not affect cotton development. The current regional ATL for the cotton leafhoppers appears to be too high, and it appears that even five leafhoppers per leaf may be sufficient to significantly reduce yields. It is concluded that ATL of the cotton leafhoppers needs to be re-evaluated in cotton fields in Turkey and also other geographic regions which share similar ecological conditions and same leafhopper species.     

Aphidicidal activity of some indigenous plant extracts against bean aphid <Emphasis Type="Italic">Aphis </Emphasis><Emphasis Type="Italic">craccivora</Emphasis> Koch (Homoptera: Aphididae)

Aphidicidal activity of hot and cold water extracts of some indigenous plants, Azadirachta indica A. Juss (neem), Calotropis procera (Aiton) W.T. Aiton (akanda), Polygonum hydropiper L. (biskatali) and Ipomoea sepiaria J. Koenig ex Roxb. (bankalmi), were tested against the bean aphid, Aphis craccivora Koch. Hot water extract of P. hydropiper and A. indica was found to be the most effective (87.6–94.5 and 80.47–89.6% mortality respectively, P < 0.01) among all the extracts. Other hot and cold water extracts also appeared to be useful (59.5–87.5% mortality) as pesticides for A. craccivora. The highest yield (3.25 kg per plant) was obtained using hot water extract of P. hydropiper followed by hot water extract of A. indica (3.15 kg per plant). The lowest yield (0.32 kg per plant) was recorded from the control block. All the phytoproduct treatments had significantly (P < 0.01) better yield than the control block.     

Successful <Emphasis Type="Italic">Agrobacterium</Emphasis>-mediated transformation of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Populus tomentosa</Emphasis> with apple <Emphasis Type="Italic">SPDS</Emphasis> gene

The problem of salinized soils has become one of the most serious constraints to agricultural and forest productivity. With the purpose of enhancing salt stress tolerance of Populus tomentosa, we transformed this tree species with spermidine synthase （SPDS） genes derived from an apple by an Agrobacterium-mediated method. Four transgenic clones were confu＇med by PCR and Southern blot analysis. As well, the expression of introduced SPDS genes was analyzed by real-time quantitative PCR.     

Bioremediation of CCA-treated wood by brown-rot fungi <Emphasis Type="Italic">Fomitopsis palustris</Emphasis>, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Coniophora puteana</Emphasis>, and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Laetiporus sulphureus</Emphasis>

This study evaluated oxalic acid accumulation and bioremediation of chromated copper arsenate (CCA)-treated wood by three brown-rot fungi Fomitopsis palustris, Coniophora puteana, and Laetiporus sulphureus. The fungi were first cultivated in a fermentation broth to accumulate oxalic acid. Bioremediation of CCA-treated wood was then carried out by leaching of heavy metals with oxalic acid over a 10-day fermentation period. Higher amounts of oxalic acid were produced by F. palustris and L. sulphureus compared with C. puteana. After 10-day fermentation, oxalic acid accumulation reached 4.2 g/l and 3.2 g/l for these fungi, respectively. Fomitopsis palustris and L. sulphureus exposed to CCA-treated sawdust for 10 days showed a decrease in arsenic of 100% and 85%, respectively; however, C. puteana remediation removed only 18% arsenic from CCA-treated sawdust. Likewise, chromium removal in F. palustris and L. sulphureus remediation processes was higher than those for C. puteana. This was attributed to low oxalic acid accumulation. These results suggest that F. palustris and L. sulphureus remediation processes can remove inorganic metal compounds via oxalic acid production by increasing the acidity of the substrate and increasing the solubility of the metals.An erratum to this article can be found at     

<Emphasis Type="Italic">Ophiostoma</Emphasis> species associated with bark beetles infesting three <Emphasis Type="Italic">Abies</Emphasis> species in Nikko,Japan

Ophiostoma species were isolated from bark beetles and Abies mariesii, A. veitchii and A. homolepis attacked by the beetles in Nikko, Tochigi, central Honshu, Japan. One to two Ophiostoma species were frequently isolated from each species of bark beetle. Ophiostoma subalpinum was the most common associate of Cryphalus montanus. Ophiostoma sp. B as well as O. subalpinum was a common fungus associated with Polygraphus proximus. Ophiostoma europhioides was isolated from Dryocoetes hectographus and D. autographus as one of the common associates. Ophiostoma sp. J and Ophiostoma sp. S were frequently isolated from D. autographus and D. striatus, respectively. These fungi seem to have specific relationships with particular bark beetles. Ophiostoma sp. B, Ophiostoma sp. J and Ophiostoma sp. S have unique morphological characteristics and appear to be new species. Five trees of A. veitchii, approximately 43 years old, were inoculated with five Ophiostoma species to assess the relative virulence of the fungi. Ophiostoma subalpinum, Ophiostoma sp. B, and O. europhioides had relatively higher virulence than the other species studied.     

Effectiveness of Neem (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Azadirachta indica</Emphasis>) insecticides against Brassica pod midge (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Dasineura brassicae</Emphasis> Winn<Emphasis Type="Italic">.</Emphasis>)

The efficiency of the botanical insecticide (BI) NeemAzal T/S (containing 1% Azadirachtin A), on the basis of azadirachtin applied in a dose of 20 g a.i. ha⁻¹ against Brassica pod midge (Dasineura brassicae), has been monitored for 4 years. The biological efficiency of BI was compared with the efficiency of some synthetic insecticides. It was ascertained that BI was very efficient in decreasing the number of damaged oilseed rape pods (ranging from 56.5 to 85.9% compared to untreated plants) and its efficiency was comparable with synthetic insecticides based on Chloronicotinyl (Thiacloprid) and Neonicotinoid (Acetamiprid). BI’s efficiency was, in some years, even significantly higher compared to pyrethroid (λ-cyhalothrin). The high biological efficiency of azadirachtin that we ascertained was significantly reflected in increasing potential crop yields. The yield increase of azadirachtin ranged between 9.3 and 19.4% compared to the control sample. Azadirachtin showed the highest yield for the whole time of experimentation, and in some years the yield increase was significantly higher compared to some synthetic agents.     

Toxic effects of annonaceous acetogenins from <Emphasis Type="Italic">Annona cherimolia</Emphasis> (Magnoliales: Annonaceae) on <Emphasis Type="Italic">Spodoptera frugiperda</Emphasis> (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

Plants belonging to the family Annonaceae have been commonly described in traditional medicine as remedies against head lice, and for their insecticidal properties. Characteristic constituents from a few genera of these plants are the annonaceous acetogenins. Fourteen annonaceous acetogenins have been isolated from our Argentine collection of the seeds of A. cherimolia. We report herein the antifeedant and insecticidal effects of nine of those acetogenins on Spodoptera frugiperda (J. E. Smith). The acetogenin squamocin, one of the major constituents of the extract, displayed toxic effects on early larval instars when incorporated to the larval diet at a dose of 50 μg per g of diet. The remaining annonaceous acetogenins tested, itrabin, asimicin, neoanonin, cherimolin-1, cherimolin-2, almuñequin, motrilin, and tucumanin produced pupal mortality and adult malformations leading to death, when incorporated to the larval diet at the same dose. The evaluation of indices of food consumption, growth, and food utilization indicated that squamocin was the only tested acetogenin to produce significant decrease in the growth rate and to reduce the efficiency with which larvae converted ingested food into biomass. All the acetogenins produced more than 80% pupal mortality with no dependence on the position of the THF rings or the number and location of the OH groups.     

Spatial pattern of beech (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Fagus sylvatica</Emphasis> L.) and oak (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Quercus pubescens</Emphasis> Mill.) seedlings in natural pine (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Pinus sylvestris</Emphasis> L.) woodlands

Spatial pattern of recruitment is an important factor influencing population dynamics of plant communities. The spatial pattern is determined by seed dispersal and by the spatial variability of germination and initial survival. In the process of forest expansion following farmland abandonment, mid- and late-successional species are often dispersed in pioneer forests by birds. This could result in an aggregated spatial pattern of seeds that could influence the dynamics of these species in mixed pioneer forests. In the sub-Mediterranean area, mid- and late-successional species such as Quercus pubescens (downy oak) and Fagus sylvatica (European beech) are expected to replace pioneer Pinus species. Using a point sampling method we demonstrated that beech and oak seedlings (height <2 m) have a clumped distribution in the understorey of pine. This could result from an aggregated dispersal by jays (dispersal effect) or from preferential recruitment in particular habitats (habitat effect). To test these hypotheses we proposed a statistical analysis of spatial patterns of regeneration of beech and oak. Ground cover variables (i.e. cover by rock outcrops, herbs, box shrubs, mosses or pine) did not differ significantly around seedlings as compared with random sample plots. Likewise, clumped seedlings had growth similar to isolated seedlings, thus refuting the hypothesis of preferential location in the most favourable microsites. Aggregated dispersal seems to be involved in the process of regeneration. Since beech and oak seedlings have contrasting ecological demands, we discuss the implication of this pattern for the replacement dynamics of pine by these species.     

Cultivation of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Pleurotus eryngii</Emphasis> on umbrella plant (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Cyperus alternifolius</Emphasis>) substrate

Mycelial growth and mushroom yields of three strains of Pleurotus eryngii produced on wheat bran-supplemented umbrella plant (Cyperus alternifolius) substrate were assessed using surface brightness, bromophenol blue color reactions, ergosterol and glucosamine contents, and water potential as indicators of strain performance. Mycelial growth was 31%–46% greater, depending on strain, on the umbrella plant substrate compared with the mushroom industry standard sugi (Cryptomeria japonica) substrate. Mushroom yields on the first flush were 20%–23% higher, depending on strain, on the plastic bottle-contained umbrella plant substrate. However, yields on the second break were lower from the umbrella plant substrate. Because many growers in Japan only harvest one flush, production of P. eryngii on umbrella plant substrate may offer commercial producers an alternative basal ingredient to diminishing supplies of sugi sawdust.Part of this report was presented at the 52nd Annual Meeting of the Japan Wood Research Society, Gifu, April 2002.     

Recessive inheritance of morphological characteristics of utsukushimatsu,<Emphasis Type="Italic">Pinus densiflora</Emphasis> f.<Emphasis Type="Italic">umbraculifera</Emphasis>

Pinus densiflora f.umbraculifera, commonly known as utsukushimatsu, is a distinctively shaped form of Japanese red pine whose growth is restricted to a forest stand in Shiga Prefecture, Japan. The inheritance mode of morphological characteristics of utsukushimatsu was studied to preserve the genetic resource of this pine. As previously reported, F₁ trees grown from open-pollinated seeds harvested from trees inhabiting the native stand showed two phenotypes: one resembling utsukushimatsu, which produces multiple trunks, and the other resembling normalP. densiflora, which produces one or a few trunks. In the present study, controlled pollination was carried out using F₁ and normalP. densiflora trees. Segregation ratios of the two phenotypes observed in the F₂ population showed that the morphological characteristics of utsukushimatsu are inherited recessively. This suggests that the mutation of one gene or a few closely linked genes controls the morphological characteristics of utsukushimatsu. Since multiple trunk formation of utsukushimatsu might be related to a loss of lateral bud inhibition, it follows that a simple gene mutation breaks apical dominance inP. densiflora.     

Environmentally benign methods for producing green culms of ma bamboo (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Dendrocalamus latiflorus</Emphasis>) and moso bamboo (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Phyllostachys pubescens</Emphasis>)

The objective of this study was to find an effective method for treating ma bamboo (Dendrocalamus latiflorus) and moso bamboo (Phyllostachys pubescens) using new water-based reagents containing copper. The effects of green-color protection using various treatments on bamboo culms were examined in this study. Two methods were used: heating in a water bath and ultrasonic dipping. The results revealed that excellent green-color protection (a* value of −6.2) was obtained when ma bamboo culms were treated with 0.25% ammoniacal copper quaternary compound-type B (ACQ-B) in a water bath at 100°C for 2 h. It was also found that the wettability of bamboo epidermis increasedsignificantly after pretreatment in a mixture of 1% KOH and surfactant in a water bath at 100°C for 30 min. Furthermore, pretreated moso bamboo culms exhibited excellent green-color protection after they were treated with 0.25% ACQ-B at 100°C for 2 h (a* value of −8.2). This novel treatment method definitely endows the bamboo culms with a fascinating green skin color and consequently could increase the economic value of bamboo products. No improvement in green-color protection was found when ultrasonic energy was added to the water bath at ambient temperature.     

Production of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Pinus halepensis</Emphasis> seedlings inoculated with the edible fungus <Emphasis Type="Italic">Lactarius deliciosus</Emphasis> under nursery conditions

Inoculation with edible fungi bestows an added value on mycorrhized plants since production of mushrooms as a secondary crop can be an economically-valuable resource in forestry management. In order to establish a protocol for controlled mycorrhization of Pinus halepensis with the edible fungus Lactarius deliciosus, several factors such as fertilisation (35, 60 or 120 mg total N and 13.5, 27 or 54 mg total P), potting substrate (sphagnum peat or sphagnum peat/vermiculite) and fungal inoculum (mycelial slurry produced in a bioreactor, alginate beads or peat/vermiculite) were assessed. The most effective inoculum was mycelial slurry at a dose of 10 ml/plant. The two potting substrates assessed were compatible with mycorrhiza formation. The greatest number of mycorrhized seedlings was obtained with a moderate level of N (35 mg/plant) or P fertilisation (27 mg/plant). Inoculation did not produce a consistent growth effect on P. halepensis, but seedlings met the quality requirements, making them suitable for planting out.     

Contact and ingestion toxicities of plant extracts to <Emphasis Type="Italic">Thaumetopoea solitaria</Emphasis> Frey. (Lepidoptera: Thaumetopoeidae)

Thaumetopoea solitaria is a serious pest of pistachio throughout the Mediterranean and the surrounding region. In this study, contact and ingestion toxicities of Bifora radians, Fumaria officinalis, Humulus lupulus and Rhododendron ponticum extracts against T. solitaria larvae were examined under laboratory conditions. Dimethoate was used as a positive control. In the contact toxicity bioassays B. radians extract was the most toxic, causing 32% mortality. In the ingestion toxicity bioassays H. lupulus extract was the most active, causing 83% mortality after 48 h. This shows that H. lupulus is acting as a stomach poison. The LC₅₀ and LC₉₀ values for H. lupulus ingestion toxicity bioassays were 1.7 and 8.7%, respectively. The LT₅₀ value was 29.3 h. Since H. lupulus extract caused >50% mortality even 6 days after application, its long lasting residual effect promises fewer applications. These results imply that H. lupulus has potential for use as a crop protectant against T. solitaria.     

Estimation of stand attributes in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Cryptomeria japonica</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Chamaecyparis obtusa</Emphasis> stands using QuickBird panchromatic data

This study aims to estimate stand density and stand volume in Cryptomeria japonica and Chamaecyparis obtusa stands from high-resolution satellite data and verify the reliability and uncertainty of the data. Sixty circular sample plots of 0.04 ha each were established. Their stand densities were estimated from the number of tree crowns derived from high-resolution satellite data using the watershed method. Stand densities derived from field surveys in the sample plots were compared with those obtained from high-resolution satellite data by stand age class. As a result, there was a positive correlation between them for sample plots of 41 years of age and over (R = 0.82); however, there was no correlation between them for sample plots of 40 years and under. Individual diameters at breast height (DBH) were estimated from crown areas obtained from high-resolution satellite data for the two species. Using the estimated DBH, individual tree heights were predicted from the height–diameter curves. Stand volumes were estimated from the sum of individual volumes, which were derived from volume formulas having two variables, i.e., DBH and height. Stand volumes derived from the field survey were compared with those obtained from high-resolution satellite data. The correlation coefficient between them for stands of 41 years of age and over was 0.78.