Incarceration of a section of small intestine by remnants of the ductus deferens in steers

A 13-month-old Charolais steer was examined because of anorexia and weight loss of 1 week's duration. Initially, the steer passed tarry feces for 2 days, but no feces were passed for 4 days before examination. Palpation per rectum disclosed moderate distention of the small intestine and dark tenacious mucus in the rectum. Standing celiotomy was performed through the right paralumbar fossa, and a 60-cm segment of small intestine was found to be entrapped by a fibrous band between the caudal abdominal wall and the pelvic inlet. The band was transected and the intestine was freed. The intestine was judged to be viable and the abdomen was closed. Histologically, the fibrous band consisted of ductus deferens and adnexa; the intestine had become incarcerated through a rent in the mesoductus. Small intestine entrapment through a rent in the right mesoductus was diagnosed in 20 additional steers over a 10-year period. In all cases, the steers had been castrated when weighing more than 100 kg, by manual traction on the testicle and spermatic cord through a scrotal incision. Alternate means of castration that prevent disruption of the abdominal mesoductus may prevent development of this condition.     

Evaluation of intra-abdominal vasectomy in llamas and alpacas

A method of intra-abdominal vasectomy (deferentectomy), using a laparoscopic technique in llamas and alpacas, was evaluated. Food was withheld from 14 animals for 24 hours before sedation and laparoscopy. The ductus deferens was located close to the bladder, and a 2- to 3-cm section of ductus deferens was resected with the aid of a pair of hook scissors. The procedure was completed in 5 to 8 minutes, and animals did not have any adverse effects. Forty-five days after vasectomy, animals were used for detecting sexually receptive females or inducing ovulation during reproductive physiologic studies. The procedure did not impair libido and had no effect on male sexual behavior for many years. The technique is simpler, safer, and faster than the traditional external approach.     

Castration of the Vietnamese pot-bellied boar: 8 cases

Surgical techniques for castration of the Vietnamese pot-bellied boar and outcome are described. Vietnamese pot-bellied pig (VPBP) boars (n = 8) were admitted for castration. Data retrieved from medical records (2002–2011) for these pigs included signalment, history, reason for castration, perioperative management, surgical technique, and complications. Follow-up information was obtained from owners. A scrotal approach with closed technique was used for 6 boars with normally descended testes. A scrotal approach and open technique was used in 1 inguinal cryptorchid boar. In a hemicastrated abdominal cryptorchid boar an ipsilateral parainguinal approach was used. No complications occurred. Castration of the Vietnamese pot-bellied boar is associated with minimal complications and a satisfactory cosmetic outcome. We recommend the routine closure of the external inguinal rings, a simple and fast procedure that may prevent post-castration inguinal herniation.     

Decision Making for Cryptorchid Castration; a Retrospective Analysis of 280 Cases

The location of an undescended testicle influences the choice of surgical technique for efficient cryptorchid castration. We review a standardized protocol for preoperative examination to dictate surgical approach to cryptorchidism. Cases are split into two periods: 2004–2006 and 2007–2014. In 2004–2006, conventional cryptorchidectomy and laparoscopic cryptorchid castration (standing) were both offered, but the choice of technique was based primarily on owners' preference for a recumbent or standing procedure. In 2007–2014, ultrasonography was used to locate the testes and dictate the preferred surgical approach; for abdominal testes, laparoscopic intraabdominal spermatic cord ligation without orchidectomy was preferred and for inguinal testes, conventional open orchidectomy. The numbers of animals requiring a second procedure to complete castration were compared between the two periods. In addition, failure rates for individual testes grouped by location were determined separately for the different techniques, and the value of preoperative ultrasonography to locate the retained testes was assessed. In 2004–2006, 15.3% (20/131) of the cryptorchids needed more than one surgery to complete castration, compared to 0.7% (1/144) in 2007–2014. Failure rates for laparoscopic castration were 0/168 (0%) for abdominal, 3/40 (7.5%) for inguinal, and 9/55 (16.4%) for scrotal testes; for conventional castration, failure was recorded for 3/12 (25%) abdominal and 0/92 (0%) inguinal testes. For 94% (156/166) of retained testes, ultrasound-based preoperative advice on surgical approach was correct. Using a standardized preoperative examination to determine choice of surgical technique significantly (P < .001) reduced the number of second surgeries needed to complete castration. Preoperative ultrasound is therefore a useful aid to determining the surgical approach to cryptorchid castration.     

A polyorchid dog

The case of a polyorchid Irish Setter is presented here. Castration and intra-abdominal testis removal were performed one year of age when one scrotal and one cryptorchid testis near the right inguinal canal were removed. Later it became apparent that there was still testosterone production. A third testis, abdominal cryptorchid, was found on the right side cranially and right to the bladder. The third testis had a strong cranial suspensory ligament and the tail of the epididymis was elongated. The ductus deferens did not enter the prostate but followed the gubernaculum to the inguinal canal near the stump of the previous operation on the caudal right testis. This suggests that two right cryptorchid testes had common ductus deferens.     

Morphological and immunohistochemical studies in testes of normal and cryptorchid boars

Scrotal (n = 66), inguinal (n = 7) and abdominal (n = 36) testes from pigs differing in age (from 1 day to 4 years) were collected after slaughtering or by castration, fixed in 4% formalin and examined by light microscopy. The expression of vimentin, desmin, alpha-actin and PCNA was detected by immunohistochemical technique. Histologically no differences between scrotal and cryptorchid testes are obvious during the prepubertal period, until the age of 10-12 weeks, but with the onset of puberty degenerative alterations (Sertoli-cell-only morphology, giant cells) in dystopic testes occur. Additionally the differentiation of the interstitial cells is disturbed in abdominal testes resulting in a deviating expression pattern of alpha-actin. The Sertoli cells show different distribution patterns (basal, perinuclear, apical) of vimentin depending on the position of the testis and the age of the animal.     

Evaluation of ‘Section‐Ligation‐Release (SLR)’ Technique Devised for Castration in the Stallion

A novel technique [Section‐Ligation‐Release (SLR)] was evaluated for castration in the horse. Clinical traits, serum testosterone concentrations after challenge with human chorionic gonadotrophin (hCG), and histopathological changes of the testicular tissue were assessed. Five stallions, aged 24–48 months, were castrated using SLR technique under general anaesthesia. Both spermatic cords in each stallion were exposed at the scrotal neck by two 5‐cm long incisions, followed by sharp dissection through the parietal vaginal tunic. Both vascular and non‐vascular structures in the cords were triple clamped, transected and ligated. Both testes were left in situ. Serum testosterone concentrations were measured pre‐operatively and at 2 months after castration following IV administration of 1 × 10⁴ IU of hCG. Both testes from each castrate were collected at 2 months for histopathologic examination. SLR castration was successfully achieved. Moderated scrotal and preputial swelling was the only experienced short‐term complication. Serum testosterone concentrations were significantly lower than basal pre‐operative levels at 2 months after castration, and did not respond to hCG. On histopathology, hyalinization of the seminiferous tubules and loss of testicular interstitial tissue were indicative of complete avascular necrosis. This novel primary closure castration technique of stallion is a simple practical method, with minimal post‐operative complications; and could be safely advocated as an alternative to the traditional castration techniques allowing for second intention healing of scrotal wounds.     

Bilateral Testicular Mixed Germ Cell-sex Cord-stromal Tumours in a Stallion

An 18-year-old Friesian stallion was examined approximately one week after reportedly presenting scrotal swelling due to torsion of the spermatic cords. Upon presentation no scrotal swelling was noted, the testes were normally oriented, and no abnormalities of the spermatic cords were noted. However, both testes were smaller than expected for a mature stallion and deep palpation revealed that the consistency of the testes was nodular. Ultrasonographic evaluation of the testes revealed diffuse heterogeneous parenchyma with multiple hypoechoic nodular areas. Grossly, the testicular parenchyma was effaced by multiple gray-tan nodules of varying consistency interspersed with gray-white bands of tissue. Microscopic analysis revealed multiple pleomorphic neoplastic foci disseminated throughout both testes. Histological and immunohistochemical features were atypical and consistent with the diagnosis of bilateral testicular mixed germ cell-sex cord stromal tumours. Bilateral testicular tumours and testicular mixed cell tumours are extremely rare in stallions and this is the first report of bilateral testicular mixed germ cell-sex cord-stromal tumours in a stallion. Our findings indicate that certain ultrasonographic characteristics are suggestive of testicular tumour and that immunohistochemistry markers can be used to better characterize testicular neoplasms in stallions.     

Castration of horses and donkeys with first intention healing

A simple technique for castration of adult horses which results in first intention healing was devised. The technique involves a 'closed' castration with or without a transfixed ligature on the spermatic sac and suturing the scrotal skin with polyglycolic acid suture material. The postoperative course was characterised by mild oedema only and by rapid recovery. The results obtained during the course of removing 311 scrotal testes from horses and donkeys of all ages are described and discussed. The technique is readily applicable in the field.     

Effects of Vasectomy on Seminal Plasma Alkaline Phosphatase in Male Alpacas (Vicugña pacos)

Azoospermia is a common finding in male alpacas which present for infertility. The challenge is to differentiate azoospermia of testicular origin from non‐testicular origin. In several species, alkaline phosphatase (AP) concentrations in seminal plasma have been used as a diagnostic marker of contributions of the testis and epididymis to the ejaculate. The purpose of this study was to determine whether AP assay could differentiate testicular from non‐testicular azoospermia in male alpacas. An experimental model of bilateral outflow obstruction (pre‐scrotal vasectomy) was used in 22 male alpacas, aged 2–9 years. No reproductive history was available. Animals were submitted for electroejaculation (EE) under general anaesthesia and vasectomy performed. Five weeks later, animals were submitted for EE. Vasectomy was not successful in one animal, which was removed from analysis. AP levels were compared in seminal plasma in the pre‐ and post‐vasectomy samples. The mean ± SEM concentration of AP in pre‐vasectomy seminal plasma was 504.29 ± 166.45 U/l (range 10–2910); the post‐vasectomy levels were 252.48 ± 81.77 U/l (range 0–1640; p = 0.06). In 71.4% of animals, AP levels decreased, varying from 18% to 100% reduction. Results of this study suggest that AP is not produced exclusively by the testis and epididymis in alpacas and that AP assay is not a valid diagnostic test for determination of origin of azoospermia; the gold standard for diagnosis of origin of azoospermia remains testicular biopsy.     

The gross anatomy of the male reproductive system of a neotropical rodent: the agouti (Dasyprota leporina)

The literature available on the agouti (Dasyprocta leporina) is very limited. The agouti is a Neotropical rodent found in Trinidad and Tobago, Central and South America. This study focuses on one of the many unexplored areas relating to the species, the male reproductive system. The results showed that the mean testicular length, diameter and weight was 3.67 +/- 0.12 cm, 1.67 +/- 0.04 cm and 5.03 +/- 0.52 g respectively. The paired testes and epididymis were found in contact with the abdominal muscles within scrotal pouches, which are evaginations of the caudoventral abdominal wall. The caput epididymis is enclosed by a fat body. The ductus deferens has a mean length and diameter of 10.98 +/- 0.40 cm and 0.14 +/- 0.01 cm respectively. At the urethral end of the ductus deferens the diameter of each duct expends to form the ampulla. The mean diameter of each of the ampulla was 0.25 cm. The accessory sex organs of the male agouti (D. leporina) include the vesicular glands, the coagulating glands, the prostate glands and the bulbourethral glands. The penis of the agouti is U-shaped with a mean length of 9.90 +/- 0.43 cm. The glans penis contains an os penis, a pair of lateral penile cartilages and paired ventral keratinaceous styles.     

Alterations in the immunohistochemical localization patterns of alpha-smooth muscle actin (SMA) and vimentin in the postnatally developing bovine cryptorchid testis

Previously, we reported the normal postnatal developmental changes in immunohistochemical localization of alpha-smooth muscle actin (SMA) and vimentin in the bovine testis. In this study, we demonstrate the alterations of these cytoskeletal proteins in the bovine cryptorchid testis as compared to the contralateral scrotal testis during postnatal development. Seminiferous peritubular alpha-SMA did not appear in the cryptorchid testis until 8 months of age, except for very weak intermittent filaments in relatively larger seminiferous tubules. However, a similar peritubular pattern was observed in the 18-month-old cryptorchid and scrotal testes. Moreover, weak expression of alpha-SMA in the straight tubules and rete testes at 5 months of age did not improve until 18 months of age in the cryptorchid testes. The Sertoli cell vimentin in the cryptorchid testes revealed a highly immature pattern at 5 months of age, a pattern similar to a transforming pattern with infranuclear vimentin extensions at 8 months of age, and a pattern that was almost a transforming pattern, but with considerable weakening of the vimentin filaments, at 18 months of age. In conclusion, cryptorchidism may cause considerable delay in testicular myoid cell differentiation and in attainment of the transforming pattern of the Sertoli cell vimentin, which weakens and fails to attain the mature pattern in the cryptorchid testis. These alterations may be related to the structural immaturity and functional failure of postnatally developing bovine testes exposed continuously to body heat.     

Acute cortisol responses of lambs to castration using a rubber ring and/or a castration clamp with or without local anaesthetic

Changes in plasma cortisol concentrations during the first 4 hours after castration of 6-week-old lambs by one of four methods were measured. The methods were application of a rubber ring above the testes, application of a ring to shorten the scrotum below the testes, use of a castration clamp plus a ring, and use of a castration clamp alone. The efficacy of local anaesthetic in reducing or abolishing the cortisol responses to castration by all these methods except short scrotum was assessed. Local anaesthetic was injected into the neck of the scrotum, both spermatic cords, the scrotal neck plus spermatic cords, or into both testes. The combined clamp plus ring method was used to test whether or not clamp damage to afferent nerves from the testes would reduce the cortisol response to ring castration. The short scrotum method elicited a significantly lower cortisol response than that caused by ring castration. Injection of local anaesthetic into both spermatic cords marginally reduced the cortisol response to ring castration, but the response was virtually abolished by prior scrotal neck, or scrotal neck plus spermatic cords, or intra-testicular local anaesthetic injections. The clamp plus ring method, where each spermatic cord and the associated scrotal tissue were crushed separately for 1, 5 or 10 seconds with no overlap between the two crush lines, did not elicit lower cortisol responses than the ring-only method. Local anaesthetic injected into the scrotal neck virtually abolished, and spermatic cord injections markedly reduced, the cortisol responses to combined clamp plus ring castration. The IO-second clamp application caused a more protracted cortisol response than did ring-only castration, whereas the cortisol responses to 1-second clamp application and to ring-only castration were similar. Local anaesthetic injected into the scrotal neck or spermatic cords did not affect significantly the cortisol response to the IO-second clamp application. The following conclusions were drawn from this work: the testes as well as the scrotum were sources of noxious sensory input after ring application; the clamp plus ring method used here was ineffective in reducing the pain-induced distress (as indicated by cortisol concentrations) caused by ring-only castration; injection of local anaesthetic into the scrotal neck or into the testes prior to ring application blocked most noxious sensory input from both the scrotum and the testes; and on the basis of the present cortisol responses the 10-second clamp applications method could not be recommended in reference to the ring-only method, but the l-second clamp application method might be equally acceptable for castrating 6-week-old-lambs. Of the methods examined, injections of local anaesthetic into the scrotal neck or both testes were the most effective in reducing the pain-induced distress caused by ring-only castration.     

Immunolocalization of some HOX proteins in immature and mature feline testes

Homeobox (HOX) proteins are known for their critical role in body shape formation and tissue differentiation of developing vertebrate embryos. Recent research has shown that HOX proteins have many physiological roles such as cell proliferation, cell cycle, apoptosis and cell differentiation in adults, as well as the development of the vertebrate nerve and reproductive system. This study was conducted to determine the possible physiological functions and expression intensities of HOXA10, HOXA11, HOXB6 and HOXC6 proteins in the male reproductive system (testes, epididymis and deferens ducts), which are important for the continuity of some specific cat breeds in different age ranges. In the study, a total of 18 testicular tissues were used, divided into two groups: less than 6 months (immature) and more than 1 year (mature). Tissue samples were then subjected to immunohistochemical staining with protein-specific antibodies examined in the study. In the findings obtained in the research; it was observed that HOXA10, HOXA11, HOXB6 and HOXC6 produced different intensities of immunolocalization in the epididymis and ductus deferens layers in the immature and mature testicular cells. In addition, it was found that HOXA10 immunoreaction was also seen in some vascular endothelial cells. As a result, it was concluded that the HOX proteins could contribute to the physiological functions of testes, epididymis and ductus deferens and affect male fertility.     

Experimental transmission of Actinobacillus seminis infection to rams

Nine groups of four 18- to 24-month-old rams were inoculated with Actinobacillus seminis by the following routes: intraconjunctival, intranasal, oral, intravenous, intramuscular, intraepididymal, vas deferens, intraurethral or intrapreputial. Eight similar rams were left uninoculated as controls. Systemic clinical signs were minimal and were confined primarily to the inoculation sites and the scrotal contents. Mild to severe epididymitis resulted from all the routes of inoculation except intraconjunctival and intranasal. Direct inoculation into the genital tract, especially into the cauda epididymis, was more effective. Intrapreputial and intraurethral inoculation led to ascending urethral infection, and inoculation into the vas deferens resulted primarily in descending infection of the accessory sex glands. A seminis was isolated from 11 of the 36 test rams (30.6 per cent); 26 of the 36 rams, some from each of the test groups except those inoculated intravenously, reacted serologically.     

Alteration in testicular cyclic AMP system in the rat following vasectomy.

Endogenous cyclic AMP levels and the activities of adenylate cyclase, cyclic AMP-dependent and independent protein kinases were examined in testes of mature rats bilaterally vasectomized for one, three and seven months. Although no significant alteration in testicular cyclic AMP was detected one month following vasectomy, marked decreases (by 55% and 32%, respectively) were seen three and seven months postvasectomy. Likewise, vasectomy also resulted in a significant decrease (by 25%) in the activity of testicular adenylate cyclase three and seven months after vasectomy. Although soluble cyclic AMP-dependent protein kinase activity remained unaffected three months postvasectomy, the activity of the cyclic nucleotide-dependent enzyme was significantly increased (by 21%) when compared to the sham-operated controls. Furthermore, while the protein kinase ratio (--cyclic AMP/+cyclic AMP) was decreased in animals vasectomized for three months, the ability of the enzyme to bind (3H) cyclic AMP in vitro was significantly enhanced (18%). Rats vasectomized for seven months showed similar biochemical alterations but the effects of this procedure were more pronounced. Moreover, while short-term vasectomy increased the responsiveness of seminiferous tubular adenylate cyclase to in vitro stimulation by follicle stimulating hormone, the activity of the enzyme was also increased (by 100%) in the presence of luteinizing hormone in vasectomized rats. These data raise the possibility that changes in testicular function seen following vasectomy may be related to the alterations in cyclic AMP metabolism as well as in the sensitivity of testicular adenylate cyclase to regulation by gonadotropins.     

Clinical and Pathological Findings in Testis, Epididymis, Deferens Duct and Prostate following Vasectomy in a Dog

We report the case of a bilateral and multilocular spermatocele and sperm granuloma in a dog that was vasectomized 5 years before. Clinical examination revealed scrotal dermatitis and benign prostatic hyperplasia. Orchiectomy was performed, and gross and histological examination showed testicular degeneration associated with epididymal sperm granuloma. In relation to this case, the literature about long-term effects of vasectomy in dogs has been reviewed. On the basis of these results, a preventive sonogram and physical assessment in prostate and other reproductive structures before vasectomy is recommended.     

Concentrations of oestradiol and testosterone in peripheral and spermatic venous blood of dogs with unilateral cryptorchidism

Plasma testosterone and oestradiol concentrations were measured in peripheral and spermatic venous blood of 13 dogs with unilateral inguinal cryptorchidism, 9 dogs with unilateral abdominal cryptorchidism, and in a control group of 36 mature normal dogs. The hormone concentrations were similar in the three groups, both in the peripheral and in the spermatic venous blood. The weight of the testes in the control group was correlated with the body weight and there was no significant difference between the weight of the right and the left testes. The weight of the abdominal testes was lower than that of the inguinal testes, and there was no compensatory enlargement of the contralateral scrotal testis. The cryptorchid testes showed little or no histological evidence of spermatogenesis, and spermatogenesis was usually normal in the scrotal testes.     

Acute cortisol responses of lambs to ring castration and docking after the injection of lignocaine into the scrotal neck or testes at the time of ring application

OBJECTIVE: To test whether injecting lignocaine into the scrotal neck 5 to 10 s before or into both testes immediately after ring castration and docking wound significantly reduce the plasma cortisol response to castration and docking. DESIGN: A physiological study with controls. PROCEDURE: Lambs were given one of six treatments: control handling, injection of lignocaine into scrotal neck, injection of lignocaine into both testes, ring castration and docking, ring castration and docking after lignocaine was injected into the scrotal neck, and ring castration and docking before lignocaine was injected into both testes. Blood samples were taken before and regularly after treatment and analysed for plasma cortisol concentrations. RESULTS: The plasma cortisol concentrations of lambs castrated and docked after lignocaine had been injected into the scrotal neck were significantly lower between 20 and 60 min after treatment than in lambs castrated and docked without local anaesthesia. Injecting lignocaine into the testes after ring application did not significantly reduce the cortisol response to ring castration and docking. CONCLUSIONS: Lignocaine injected into the scrotal neck 5 to 10 s before ring castration will reduce the cortisol response and by inference the pain associated with ring castration.     

Aplasia of the epididymis and vas deferens in the dog

The occurrence of aplasia of the epididymis and vas deferens in a Golden Retriever is reported. The dog was presented for a fertility examination. Scrotal palpation indicated aplasia of the left epididymis and vas deferens. These findings were confirmed by surgical examination and a testicular biopsy taken at this time revealed active spermatogenesis to be present. The upper urinary tract was examined and found to be normal. The condition was not evident on scrotal examination of six siblings.