Relationship of carotenoids and tocopherols in a sample of carrot root-color accessions and carrot germplasm carrying Rp and rp alleles

Carotenoids and tocopherols are powerful antioxidants synthesized in plants from a common precursor. They may offer significant health benefits to humans. Seed oils have been shown to possess high levels of tocopherols, but little is known about their levels in the edible portions of most vegetable crops. A two-year field experiment was conducted at two locations to assess levels of major carotenoids and tocopherols in carrot (Daucus carota) root and leaf tissue. Levels of compounds in root tissue reported on a dry weight basis were as follows: alpha-tocopherol, 0.04-0.18 ppm; lycopene, 0.00-52.94 ppm; alpha-carotene, 10.63-1504.76 ppm; and beta-carotene, 26.69-1673.76 ppm. Higher levels of all carotenoids were measured in phloem tissue than in xylem. Leaf tissue levels of tocopherols measured on a dry weight basis ranged from 0.02 to 0.85 ppm, whereas levels of carotenoids ranged from 12.81 to 411.66 ppm. In xylem tissue, alpha-tocopherol was significantly (P < or =0.001) positively correlated with alpha-carotene (r = 0.65) and with beta-carotene (r = 0.52). This positive correlation indicates it may be possible to select for both increased alpha-tocopherol and carotenoids in carrot. The reduced pigment (rp) mutation of carrot exhibited a 96% reduction in levels of alpha- and beta-carotene and a 25-43% reduction in alpha-tocopherol when compared to a near-isogenic line. In plants homozygous for rp, a substantial increase was observed in phytoene, a precursor to carotenoids, suggesting the location of the rp lesion in the carotenoid synthesis pathway.     

Bioaccessibility of carotenoids and vitamin E from their main dietary sources

Vitamin E and carotenoids are fat-soluble microconstituents that may exert beneficial effects in humans, including protection against cancer, cardiovascular diseases, and age-related eye diseases. Their bioavailability is influenced by various factors including food matrix, formulation, and food processing. Since human studies are labor-intensive, time-consuming, and expensive, the in vitro model used in this study is increasingly being used to estimate bioaccessibility of these microconstituents. However, the ability of this model to predict bioavailability in a healthy human population has not yet been verified. The first aim of this study was to validate this model by comparing model-derived bioaccessibility data with (i) human-derived bioaccessibility data and (ii) published mean bioavailability data reported in studies involving healthy humans. The second aim was to use it to measure alpha- and gamma-tocopherol, beta-carotene, lycopene, and lutein bioaccessibility from their main dietary sources. Bioaccessibility as assessed with the in vitro model was well correlated with human-derived bioaccessibility values (r = 0.90, p < 0.05), as well as relative mean bioavailability values reported in healthy human groups (r = 0.98, p < 0.001). The bioaccessibility of carotenoids and vitamin E from the main dietary sources was highly variable, ranging from less than 0.1% (beta-carotene from raw tomato) to almost 100% (alpha-tocopherol from white bread). Bioaccessibility was dependent on (i) microconstituent species (lutein > beta-carotene and alpha-carotene > lycopene and alpha-tocopherol generally > gamma-tocopherol), (ii) food matrix, and (iii) food processing.     

Influence of organic versus conventional agricultural practice on the antioxidant microconstituent content of tomatoes and derived purees; consequences on antioxidant plasma status in humans

The present study aims first to compare the antioxidant microconstituent contents between organically and conventionally grown tomatoes and, second, to evaluate whether the consumption of purees made of these tomatoes can differently affect the plasma levels of antioxidant microconstituents in humans. When results were expressed as fresh matter, organic tomatoes had higher vitamin C, carotenoids, and polyphenol contents (except for chlorogenic acid) than conventional tomatoes. When results were expressed as dry matter, no significant difference was found for lycopene and naringenin. In tomato purees, no difference in carotenoid content was found between the two modes of culture, whereas the concentrations of vitamin C and polyphenols remained higher in purees made out of organic tomatoes. For the nutritional intervention, no significant difference (after 3 weeks of consumption of 96 g/day of tomato puree) was found between the two purees with regard to their ability to affect the plasma levels of the two major antioxidants, vitamin C and lycopene.     

Changes in contents of carotenoids and vitamin E during tomato processing

The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of different types of tomato processing on contents of lycopene, beta-carotene, and alpha-tocopherol. Samples of tomato sauce, tomato soup, baked tomato slices, and tomato juice were taken at different times of heating, respectively, after each step of production. HPLC was used to analyze contents of carotenoids and vitamin E. Due to the loss of water during thermal processing, contents of lycopene, beta-carotene, and alpha-tocopherol on a wet weight basis increased. On a dry weight basis, contents of lycopene increased or decreased depending on the origin of the tomatoes used, whereas the beta-carotene contents decreased or were quite stable. In contrast to lycopene, beta-carotene isomerized due to thermal processing. The alpha-tocopherol contents significantly rose during short-term heating. The increase was not caused by release of alpha-tocopherol from the seeds containing predominantly gamma-tocopherol and accounting for 2% of total alpha-tocopherol content only.     

Warm temperatures or drought during seed maturation increase free alpha-tocopherol in seeds of soybean (Glycine max [L.] Merr.)

Soybean seeds are an important source of dietary tocopherols, but like seeds of other dicotyledonous plants, they contain relatively little alpha-tocopherol, the form with the greatest vitamin E activity. To evaluate potential effects of environmental stress during seed maturation on tocopherols, soybeans were raised in greenhouses at nominal average temperatures of 23 degrees C or 28 degrees C during seed fill, with or without simultaneous drought (soil moisture at 10-25% of capacity), during normal growing seasons in 1999 (cvs. Essex and Forrest) and 2000 (cvs. Essex, Forrest, and Williams). Total free (nonesterified) tocopherols increased slightly in response to drought in Essex and Forrest. All three lines responded to elevated temperature and, to a lesser extent, drought with large (2-3-fold) increases in alpha-tocopherol and corresponding decreases in delta-tocopherol and gamma-tocopherol. The results suggest that weather or climate can significantly affect seed tocopherols. It may be possible to breed for elevated alpha-tocopherols by selecting for altered plant response to temperature.     

Simultaneous extraction and quantitation of carotenoids, chlorophylls, and tocopherols in Brassica vegetables

Brassica oleracea vegetables, such as broccoli (B. oleracea L. var. italica) and cauliflower (B. oleracea L. var. botrytis), are known to contain bioactive compounds associated with health, including three classes of photosynthetic lipid-soluble compounds: carotenoids, chlorophylls, and tocopherols. Carotenoids and chlorophylls are photosynthetic pigments. Tocopherols have vitamin E activity. Due to genetic and environmental variables, the amounts present in vegetables are not constant. To aid breeders in the development of Brassica cultivars with higher provitamin A and vitamin E contents and antioxidant activity, a more efficient method was developed to quantitate carotenoids, chlorophylls, and tocopherols in the edible portions of broccoli and cauliflower. The novel UPLC method separated five carotenoids, two chlorophylls, and two tocopherols in a single 30 min run, reducing the run time by half compared to previously published protocols. The objective of the study was to develop a faster, more effective extraction and quantitation methodology to screen large populations of Brassica germplasm, thus aiding breeders in producing superior vegetables with enhanced phytonutrient profiles.     

Comparison of nutritional traits variability in selected eighty-seven inbreds from Chinese maize (Zea mays L.) germplasm

Among cereals, only maize has not only a high amount of carotenoids, tocopherols, and oil content but also is rich in starch and protein content compared with other major food crops, such as rice and wheat. The present investigation was made primarily to assess the genetic variability for nutritionally important traits in 87 elite maize inbreds representing major heterotic groups in China. Carotenoid and tocopherol fractions were measured by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), whereas oil, starch, and protein contents were detected by a VECTER22/N near-infrared analyzer. Significant interactions between genotypes and years were observed for all the traits. The pooled mean values of beta-carotene, beta-cryptoxanthin, alpha-carotene, lutein, zeaxanthin, and total carotenoids were 0.449, 0.876, 0.121, 5.803, 3.048, and 10.298 microg g (-1), respectively, whereas the combined mean performance of alpha-tocopherol, gamma-tocopherol, delta-tocopherol, and total tocopherols were 23.98, 32.90, 2.189, and 59.55 microg g (-1), respectively. The average protein, starch, and oil contents were observed to be 12.28, 64.51, and 3.55%, respectively. High level of heritability estimates were observed for all the traits and ranged from 65.6% (protein content) to 92.5% (alpha/gamma-tocopherol ratio). Most of the traits studied in this experiment were either significantly positive correlated or independent. The present finding exhibits substantial opportunities to the breeders for improvement of these traits in maize cultivars and also suggests further exploration of a new source of elite breeding stocks containing a high level of these nutritionally important compounds. Finally, these findings may also help in biofortification of maize.     

Biothiols, taurine, and lipid-soluble antioxidants in the edible pulp of Sicilian cactus pear (Opuntia ficus-indica) fruits and changes of bioactive juice components upon industrial processing

Biothiols, taurine, and flavonols, as well as tocopherols and carotenoids have been assessed in the edible pulp of Sicilian red (Sanguigna), yellow (Surfarina), and white (Muscaredda) cultivars of cactus pear. The yellow cultivar has the highest level of reduced glutathione (GSH, 8.1 +/- 0.78 mg/100 g pulp), whereas the white cultivar showed the highest amount of cysteine (1.21 +/- 0.12 mg/100 g pulp). Taurine accounted for 11.7 +/- 1.0 mg/100 g in the yellow pulp, while lower levels were measured in the others. With the exception of kaempferol in the yellow cultivar (2.7 +/- 0.2 microg/100 g pulp), the edible pulp of cactus pear was not a source of flavonols. Very low amounts of lipid-soluble antioxidant vitamins such as vitamin E and carotenoids were measured in all cultivars. As a consequence of industrial processing, a total loss of GSH and beta-carotene and a net decrease of vitamin C and cysteine were revealed in the fruit juice, whereas betalains, taurine, and vitamin E appeared to be less susceptible to degradation.     

Production system and storage temperature influence grapefruit vitamin C, limonoids, and carotenoids

Concentrations of grapefruit (cv. 'Rio Red'; Citrus paradisi Macf.) bioactives grown under organic and conventional production systems were evaluated after storage at various temperatures. The first experiment was conducted in November 2008 and the second experiment was conducted in February 2011 using commercial production, processing, and packing procedures. The harvested grapefruits were stored at 23 °C (room temperature) or 9 °C for 4 weeks and analyzed for vitamin C, limonoids, and carotenoids at the end of each week using HPLC. Vitamin C levels were higher in organically grown grapefruits (41.8 mg/100 g) compared to conventionally grown grapefruits (39.2 mg/100 g) at 0 days after harvest in the first experiment. However, production system did not significantly affect vitamin C levels in the second experiment. During storage at room temperature, vitamin C degradation losses ranged from 0.5 to 7% for organically produced grapefruits and from 3 to 18% for conventional grapefruits in both experiments. In the first experiment at harvest, organically produced grapefruits had 77% higher (p ≤ 0.05) nomilin than conventionally produced grapefruits, whereas grapefruits grown under the conventional production system had 2-fold higher lycopene levels compared to organic grapefruits. In the second experiment, both β-carotene and lycopene levels were significantly (p ≤ 0.05) higher in conventionally produced grapefruits than in organic grapefruits. Overall, conventional production significantly increased grapefruit carotenoid levels in both experiments. In general, storage temperature (room temperature and 9 °C) had minimal effects on vitamin C degradation but significant effects on the degradation of carotenoids in the first experiment.     

Relationship between fatty acid profile and vitamin E content in maize hybrids (Zea mays L.)

The balance between the vitamin E (tocochromanols) and polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) contents mainly determines the susceptibility to lipid peroxidation and the storage stability of corn oil. In 1997, field experiments were conducted at two different locations to evaluate a collection of 30 corn hybrids for fatty acid profiles and tocochromanol contents. Hybrids differed significantly (p < 0.01) for major fatty acids, as well as for tocochromanol contents and composition. The major fatty acids were palmitic, oleic, and linoleic acids, whose contents were in the ranges 9.2-12.1%, 19.5-30.5%, and 53.0-65.3%, respectively. The tocopherol contents ranged as follows: alpha-tocopherol, 67-276 mg (kg of oil)(-1); beta-tocopherol, 0-20 mg (kg of oil)(-1); gamma-tocopherol, 583-1048 mg (kg of oil)(-1); delta-tocopherol, 12-71 mg (kg of oil)(-1); total tocopherol, 767-1344 mg (kg of oil)(-1). gamma-Tocopherol was the predominant derivative among all tocopherols. The tocotrienol contents were in the ranges 46-89, 53-164, and 99-230 mg (kg of oil)(-1) for alpha-, gamma-, and total tocotrienol contents, respectively. The tocotrienol profile was not characterized by the predominance of any tocotrienol homologue. alpha-Tocopherol was positively correlated with PUFA (r = 0.41) and with the vitamin E equivalent (vit E equiv) (r = 0.84), and it was not correlated with gamma-tocopherol. gamma-Tocopherol was highly correlated with total tocopherol and tocochromanol contents (r = 0.93 and r = 0.90, respectively), indicating that the contribution of this vitamer to the total tocochromanol content is the most important among all tocochromanols. The high positive correlation found between the vit E/PUFA ratio and the vit E equiv, as well as the absence of correlation between this ratio and PUFA indicates that a higher vit E/PUFA ratio can be easier achieved be increasing the vitamin E content than by modifying fatty acid profile in corn oil.     

Effects of dietary anthocyanins on tocopherols and lipids in rats

The effects of dietary cyanidin-3-O-glucoside (C3G) and concentrates from blackcurrant [Ribes nigrum] (BC) and elderberry [Sambucus nigra] (EC) on plasma and tissue concentrations of alpha- (alpha-T) and gamma-tocopherol (gamma-T) and cholesterol, as well as the fatty acid composition of the liver lipids were investigated in growing, male rats of the Sprague-Dawley strain. Animals were fed semisynthetic diets supplemented with 2 g/kg C3G, BC, or EC for 4 weeks. Dietary anthocyanins did not affect feed intake, body weight, and organ weights. C3G elevated the concentrations of tocopherols in the liver and lungs (P < 0.05). Cholesterol levels in plasma and liver were not affected by any of the regimens. C3G and BC reduced the relative amount of saturated fatty acids in the liver (P < 0.05). BC also lowered the percentage of 22:6 + 24:0 and EC the ratio of 20:3/20:4 n-6 (P < 0.05). In conclusion, dietary C3G, BC, and EC appear to have little effect on cholesterol levels and the fatty acid pattern in the liver but seem to be capable of sparing vitamin E in healthy, growing rats.     

Dual role of the pigmentation gene B in affecting carotenoid and vitamin E content in squash (Cucurbita pepo) mesocarp

The yellow and orange colorations of the mesocarp of pumpkins and squash of Cucurbita pepo are due to the presence of carotenoid pigments that also greatly contribute to their nutritional value. Carotenoids, as well as tocopherols (vitamin E), are isoprenoid compounds formed by branches of a common biosynthetic pathway. Photodiode array HPLC analysis was used to simultaneously determine the content and composition of fruit-flesh carotenoids and tocopherols in five pairs of near-isogenic lines differing in the allelic state of genes previously identified as having profound effects on fruit color. The dominant B allele promoted carotenoid accumulation up to 5-fold and prevented tocopherol accumulation in all genetic backgrounds. The dominant L-2 allele doubled carotenoid content and, in combination with the dominant B allele, increased carotenoid content by 10-15-fold as compared to the recessive l-2 allele. The genes D and L-1 had no significant effects on mesocarp tocopherols or carotenoids content. These results indicate that the B gene, which affects both carotenoids and tocopherols, may play a regulatory role in the flux of the isoprenoid pathway products.     

Plasma levels of six carotenoids in nine European countries: report from the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC)

BACKGROUND: In addition to their possible direct biological effects, plasma carotenoids can be used as biochemical markers of fruit and vegetable consumption for identifying diet-disease associations in epidemiological studies. Few studies have compared levels of these carotenoids between countries in Europe. OBJECTIVE: Our aim was to assess the variability of plasma carotenoid levels within the cohort of the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC). METHODS: Plasma levels of six carotenoids--alpha-carotene, beta-carotene, beta-cryptoxanthin, lycopene, lutein and zeaxanthin--were measured cross-sectionally in 3043 study subjects from 16 regions in nine European countries. We investigated the relative influence of gender, season, age, body mass index (BMI), alcohol intake and smoking status on plasma levels of the carotenoids. RESULTS: Mean plasma level of the sum of the six carotenoids varied twofold between regions (1.35 micromol l(-1) for men in Malm?, Sweden vs. 2.79 micromol l(-1) for men in Ragusa/Naples, Italy; 1.61 micromol l(-1) for women in The Netherlands vs. 3.52 micromol l(-1) in Ragusa/Naples, Italy). Mean levels of individual carotenoids varied up to fourfold (alpha-carotene: 0.06 micromol l(-1) for men in Murcia, Spain vs. 0.25 micromol l(-1) for vegetarian men living in the UK). In multivariate regression analyses, region was the most important predictor of total plasma carotenoid level (partial R(2)=27.3%), followed by BMI (partial R(2)=5.2%), gender (partial R(2)=2.7%) and smoking status (partial R(2)=2.8%). Females had higher total carotenoid levels than males across Europe. CONCLUSIONS: Plasma levels of carotenoids vary substantially between 16 different regions in Italy, Greece, Spain, France, Germany, the UK, Sweden, Denmark and The Netherlands. Compared with region of residence, the other demographic and lifestyle factors and laboratory measurements have limited predictive value for plasma carotenoid levels in Europe.     

Quantification of carotenoid and tocopherol antioxidants in Zea mays.

Recent investigations into carotenoid and tocopherol biological activity in mammalian systems indicate that these antioxidants are associated with the prevention of degenerative diseases. Both carotenoids and tocopherols can be found in corn kernel tissue. A replicated survey of 44 sweet and dent corn lines was conducted to determine qualitative and quantitative variability of lutein, zeaxanthin, beta-cryptoxanthin, alpha-carotene, and beta-carotene, as well as the alpha-, delta-, and gamma- forms of tocopherol. The primary carotenoids in fresh market sweet corn were found to be lutein and zeaxanthin, with the gamma form dominating among the tocopherols. Mean values among the genotypes were observed to range from 0 to 20.0 and 2.4 to 63.3 microg/g dry weight for lutein and gamma-tocopherol, respectively, indicating variability among genotypes in genes regulating the metabolism of these compounds. The observed genetic variability suggests profound differences in potential health promotion among genotypes and supports the feasibility of developing germplasm with enhanced levels of these antioxidant compounds at dosages that could promote health among the consuming public.     

Supercritical fluid extraction of lycopene from tomato processing byproducts

Tomato seeds and skins acquired from the byproduct of a local tomato processing facility were studied for supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) of phytochemicals. The extracts were analyzed for lycopene, beta-carotene, alpha-carotene, alpha-tocopherol, gamma-tocopherol, and delta-tocopherol content using high-performance liquid chromatography-electrochemical detection and compared to a chemically extracted control. SFEs were carried out using CO(2) at seven temperatures (32-86 degrees C) and six pressures (13.78-48.26 MPa). The effect of CO(2) flow rate and volume also was investigated. The results indicated that the percentage of lycopene extracted increased with elevated temperature and pressure until a maximum recovery of 38.8% was reached at 86 degrees C and 34.47 MPa, after which the amount of lycopene extracted decreased. Conditions for the optimum extraction of lycopene from 3 g of raw material were determined to be 86 degrees C, 34.47 MPa, and 500 mL of CO(2) at a flow rate of 2.5 mL/min. These conditions resulted in the extraction of 61.0% of the lycopene (7.19 microg lycopene/g).     

Change in carotenoids and antioxidant vitamins in tomato as a function of varietal and technological factors

The change in the carotenoid and bioantioxidant content of tomato as a function of varietal and technological factors was investigated in the present work. No great differences were found between cultivars for fresh consumption (salad tomatoes) and those for processing in ascorbic acid content. The concentration of ascorbic acid ranged between 14.6 and 21.7 mg/100 g fresh weight of ripe tomato fruit. Processing cultivars contained higher amounts of tocopherols, particularly alpha-tocopherol than tomatoes for fresh consumption. Significant differences could be obtained between the examined varieties with regard to carotenoid concentration. The different tomatoes varied not only in the total carotenoid content but also in the qualitative distribution of some pigments such as lycopene, beta-carotene and lutein. During heat-based processing, ascorbic acid, tocopherols, and carotenoids showed different role and response. Ascorbic acid, alpha-tocopherol quinone, and beta-carotene were the most susceptible components toward thermal degradation.     

Carotenoid absorption in humans consuming tomato sauces obtained from tangerine or high-beta-carotene varieties of tomatoes

Tomato sauces were produced from unique tomato varieties to study carotenoid absorption in humans. Tangerine tomatoes, high in cis-lycopene, especially prolycopene (7Z,9Z,7'Z,9'Z), and high-beta-carotene tomatoes as an alternative dietary source of beta-carotene were grown and processed. Sauces were served after 2 week washout periods and overnight fasting for breakfast to healthy subjects (n = 12, 6M/6F) in a randomized crossover design. The serving size was 150 g (containing 15 g of corn oil), tangerine sauce containing 13 mg of lycopene (97.0% as cis-isomers) and high-beta-carotene sauce containing 17 mg of total beta-carotene (1.6% as the 9-cis-isomer) and 4 mg of lycopene. Blood samples were collected 0, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, and 9.5 h following test meal consumption and carotenoids determined in the plasma triacylglycerol-rich lipoprotein fraction by HPLC-electrochemical detection. Baseline-corrected areas under the concentration vs time curves (AUC) were used as a measure of absorption. AUC0-9.5h values for total lycopene in the tangerine sauce group were 870 +/- 187 (nmol.h)/L (mean +/- SEM) with >99% as cis-isomers (59% as the tetra-cis-isomer). The AUC0-9.5h values for total beta-carotene and lycopene after consumption of the high-beta-carotene sauce were 304 +/- 54 (4% as 9-cis-carotene) and 118 +/- 24 (nmol.h)/L, respectively. Lycopene dose-adjusted triacylglycerol-rich lipoprotein AUC responses in the tangerine sauce group were relatively high when compared to those in the literature and the high-beta-carotene group. The results support the hypothesis that lycopene cis-isomers are highly bioavailable and suggest that special tomato varieties can be utilized to increase both the intake and bioavailability of health-beneficial carotenoids.     

Combined pressure-temperature effects on carotenoid retention and bioaccessibility in tomato juice

This study highlights the changes in lycopene and β-carotene retention in tomato juice subjected to combined pressure-temperature (P-T) treatments ((high-pressure processing (HPP; 500-700 MPa, 30 °C), pressure-assisted thermal processing (PATP; 500-700 MPa, 100 °C), and thermal processing (TP; 0.1 MPa, 100 °C)) for up to 10 min. Processing treatments utilized raw (untreated) and hot break (～93 °C, 60 s) tomato juice as controls. Changes in bioaccessibility of these carotenoids as a result of processing were also studied. Microscopy was applied to better understand processing-induced microscopic changes. TP did not alter the lycopene content of the tomato juice. HPP and PATP treatments resulted in up to 12% increases in lycopene extractability. all-trans-β-Carotene showed significant degradation (p < 0.05) as a function of pressure, temperature, and time. Its retention in processed samples varied between 60 and 95% of levels originally present in the control. Regardless of the processing conditions used, <0.5% lycopene appeared in the form of micelles (<0.5% bioaccessibility). Electron microscopy images showed more prominent lycopene crystals in HPP and PATP processed juice than in thermally processed juice. However, lycopene crystals did appear to be enveloped regardless of the processing conditions used. The processed juice (HPP, PATP, TP) showed significantly higher (p < 0.05) all-trans-β-carotene micellarization as compared to the raw unprocessed juice (control). Interestingly, hot break juice subjected to combined P-T treatments showed 15-30% more all-trans-β-carotene micellarization than the raw juice subjected to combined P-T treatments. This study demonstrates that combined pressure-heat treatments increase lycopene extractability. However, the in vitro bioaccessibility of carotenoids was not significantly different among the treatments (TP, PATP, HPP) investigated.     

Effects of different origins and harvesting time on vitamin C,tocopherols, and tocotrienols in sea buckthorn (Hippophaë rhamnoides) berries

Vitamin C, tocopherols, and tocotrienols in berries of wild and cultivated sea buckthorn (Hippopha? rhamnoides L.) of different origins and harvesting dates were determined with HPLC. Wild berries of subsp. sinensis, native to China, contained 5-10 times more vitamin C in the juice fraction than the berries of subsp. rhamnoides from Europe and subsp. mongolica from Russia (4-13 vs 0.02-2 g/L juice). Genetic background and berry-harvesting date were two primary factors determining the vitamin C content in the berries. Crossing different subspecies influenced the vitamin C content to some extent. For bushes cultivated in southwest Finland, the best berry-harvesting date for high vitamin C content was the end of August. The seeds of subsp. sinensis contained less tocopherols and tocotrienols (average 130 mg/kg) compared with seeds of subsp. rhamnoides (average 290 mg/kg) and mongolica (average 250 mg/kg). The fruit flesh of sinensis berries had contents of tocopherols and tocotrienols 2-3 times higher than those found in the other two subspecies (120 mg/kg vs 40 mg/kg in rhamnoides and 50 mg/kg in mongolica). The fresh whole berries of subsp. sinensis were clearly the best source of total tocopherols and tocotrienols. The total content of tocopherols and tocotrienols in the soft parts of the berries reached the maximum level around early- to mid-September, whereas the content in seeds continued to increase until the end of November. The excellent combination of the highest content of vitamin C and tocopherols and tocotrienols makes the berries of subsp. sinensis an optimal raw material for nutritional investigation as a candidate for functional foods with special antioxidative properties.