Developing a green infrastructure equity index to promote equity planning

The Philadelphia Water Department has committed to taking a green infrastructure (GI) approach to reduce stormwater runoff and prevent combined sewer overflow events. Promoting GI as a stormwater management technique in a city necessitates development of a more distributed urban environmental management system, through which the city's water department needs to coordinate with a wide range of public and private stakeholders, shifting power from the utility to these other stakeholders. We argue that distributed urban environmental management can lead to more inclusive outcomes but only if there is an intentionality about how funds are distributed, which communities are prioritized, how partners are chosen and cultivated, and which types of projects are implemented in which neighborhoods. We suggest the development of an equity index to help identify communities that would most benefit from GI investment as critical for equitable GI planning. Using Philadelphia as a test case, we develop a Green Infrastructure Equity Index, designed with the indirect benefits of green infrastructure in mind, to determine which communities could benefit the most from investment in GI based on their “equity void ranking”. We argue that developing a GI Equity Index provides a much more nuanced analysis of communities that takes into account the built environment as well as the underlying social and economic conditions. The GI Equity Index also allows for a shift in the way we define equity. In doing so, it (1) changes the conversation about equity in GI planning using careful data analysis that takes into account both socio-economic and built environment variables; (2) provides a visual tool that communities can use to understand underlying conditions and the existing placement of GI; and (3) serves as a framework that can be tailored to allow communities to weight their priorities, putting more power in their hands.     

Optimizing urban green space patterns to improve spatial equity using location-allocation model: A case study in Wuhan

Green space allocation aims to support the UNs sustainable development goals (SDGs) and to mitigate the conflicts between supply and demand. Previous studies have shown that the uneven distribution of populations and natural locations of green space results in environmental inequity. However, there is still a lack of knowledge on strategies for reducing mismatches of supply and demand by optimizing spatial patterns in highly dense cities. Developed urbanized areas are featured in fewer spaces for greening. In this study, we set three scenarios for coordinating the provision and demand of urban green spaces at a block scale. Taking the main city of Wuhan as an example, we apply the location-allocation model in order to identify potential sites for new green spaces. Then, the simulations of the three scenarios are used to depict various development strategies by evaluating the improvement of green equity. Our results show that the levels of green space accessibility are lower on the west side of the city center, while relatively higher on the east side, due to abundant natural resources. The Gini coefficient is 0.715, indicating unequal access for citizens to green space. Increasing green areas could enhance green equity, and the most effective way to allocate new increments is based on the accessibility. For developed cities, blocks with lower accessibility should be given priority when increasing green areas; doing so could offset the shortage of large green areas and reduce green inequity within daily walking distances. Optimal green space planning of small and functional parks near communities has the potential to meet higher recreational demands in densely populated areas.     

The public consultation is open: Insights from urban green infrastructure planning in Romania

Due to its potential to help mitigate current societal challenges and provide ecological, social, and economic benefits, urban green infrastructure (UGI) is an important investment for cities. However, its planning and implementation may be challenging due to the limited application of the conceptual foundations and the often-unknown character of the ways how the results of public consultations were integrated into the implemented UGI design. Using five Romanian urban areas as model system, we developed an evaluation protocol to assess 177 written comments submitted during the public consultation processes for 13 public UGI planning documents, along with the formal responses to these comments. Our results show critical comments towards the planning proposals (86.2 % of the comments) and a discussion of the shortcomings of the planning process (60.8 % of the comments). The analysis revealed that the UGI as it is developed and implemented currently in Romania has little public support as in 52.2 % of the comments none of UGI planning principles could be identified. Furthermore, we found a relatively low level of public comment consideration into the approved version of the planning documents as only 7.6 % of the comments were included, most of them being delegitimized by the responses of public officials/municipal administration. Thus, our results highlight that UGI consultation process is characterized by a lack of both genuine conceptual aspects and public participation substance.     

Greening cities through urban planning: A literature review on the uptake of concepts and methods in Stockholm

Nature-based solutions (NBS) represent the most recent of several "greening" concepts proposed to support spatial planning and decision-making towards sustainable metropolitan regions. Despite similarities, the concepts stem from different disciplines and policy arenas and reflect various models of people-nature relations. This paper aims to analyze the uptake of greening concepts in scientific planning literature focusing on (urban) nature and landscape in the metropolitan region of Stockholm, Sweden, over the last three decades. It investigates what changes this evolution has brought in terms of the topics adopted, methods applied, and types of planning support put into practice. We identified 574 articles that reflect substantial research on greening concepts in the Swedish planning context. The articles demonstrate an initial prevalence of biodiversity with later increases of interest in ecosystem services and NBS. A detailed analysis of the studies focusing on Stockholm revealed Population growth/densification, Green space management and Biodiversity conservation as the most commonly addressed societal challenges. The most frequently mentioned type of green and blue element is Parks and (semi-)natural urban green areas, including urban forests. Methods applied were mostly quantitative, while mixes with qualitative approaches were only apparent in ecosystem services articles. Half of the studies involved practitioners or decision-makers, but only four seemed related to real-life planning processes. Taken together, the influence of scientific literature on the uptake of greening concepts in spatial planning seems to have been limited. Future mainstreaming of greening concepts in Stockholm and beyond could benefit from available data, methods and experiences, but will require more active translation and boundary management. Further research into science-policy-planning interfaces at city scale is thus imperative to advance more sustainable pathways for people and nature in metropolitan regions.     

Local habitat characteristics have a stronger effect than the surrounding urban landscape on beetle communities on green roofs

Green roofs are a promising tool to return nature to cities and mitigate biodiversity loss brought about by urbanization. Yet, we lack basic information on how green roofs contribute to biodiversity and how their placement in the urban landscape affects different taxa and community composition. We studied the effects of local and landscape variables on beetle communities on green roofs. We expected that both local roof characteristics and urban landscape composition shape communities, but that their relative importance depends on species characteristics. Using pitfall traps, we collected beetles during two consecutive years from 17 green roofs in Basel, Switzerland. We evaluated the contribution of six local and six landscape variables to beetle community structure and to the responses of individual species. Communities on the roofs consisted of mobile and open dry-habitat species, with both local and landscape variables playing a role in structuring these communities. At the individual species level, local roof variables were more important than characteristics of the surrounding urban landscape. The most influential factors affecting the abundances of beetle species were vegetation, described as forb and grass cover (mainly positive), and roof age (mainly negative). Therefore, we suggest that the careful planning of green roofs with diverse vegetation is essential to increase their value as habitat for beetles. In addition, while beetle communities on green roofs can be diverse regardless of their placement in the urban landscape, the lack of wingless species indicates the need to increase the connectivity of green roofs to ground level habitats.     

A green infrastructure planning framework–guidance for priority,hubs and types

Green infrastructure (GI) has become an important tool to achieve sustainability and resilience in cities because of its various benefits, including stormwater management, urban heat island mitigation, air quality improvement, and carbon storage. Most existing studies have often focused on a single aspect, while few studies have incorporated the results of GI analysis into the planning process. To address this gap, we propose a planning framework to prepare the GI intervention solutions, aimed at identifying the priority actions, hubs to extract maximum multifunctionality, and preference types at the regional scale. We applied the planning framework to Wuhan city as a case study, and found an overall significant multifunctional potential. Two-thirds of the benefit pair (including spatial autocorrelation and bivariate spatial autocorrelation for benefits) relationships were found to be positive, and block areas approximately 15% of the total area were recommended as hubs to lay out the GI. Warnings should be received for evidence, revealing that industrial areas have higher requirements for GI that can alleviate the thermal environment and improve air quality. Strong positive correlations between various benefits were found in this area, especially based on a relatively large proportion of existing natural land. Further, we classified the types of GI preference by SOM (Self-organizing map neural network), and found that differentiated GI planning and strategy formulation are required by different types of regions. The planning framework provides intuitive guidance for GI intervention solution making, which can provide planners and government officials a deeper understanding of GI discourse based on clearly explained answers of important decision-making questions.     

Allergenic pollen of ornamental plane trees in a Mediterranean environment and urban planning as a prevention tool

Green spaces and urban green infrastructure are new concepts in urban planning, and lately, the influence of green spaces in cities and how this presence affects local climate change have been taken into account. Moreover, some of the ornamental trees most used in cities provoke allergic symptoms in sensitized people. Due to the importance the plane trees in our parks and cities have as ornamental trees, this article assesses the urban Platanus airborne pollen concentration in the air of five cities of the SW Iberian Peninsula and tries to determine the differential factors that its distribution has by means of combining continuous monitoring of the air using volumetric spore traps and the geolocation of plane trees. They were counted separately according to the direction (Q1 NE, Q2 SE, Q3 SW, Q4 NW) around the spore trap location in circles of 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 1000, 1500, 2000 and 2500 m in diameter. Pollen sums were distributed according to the predominant wind direction for each day. The highest concentrations for Platanus pollen were recorded in Don Benito. Differences amongst pollen stations were found and were mainly related to their degree of maturity and their proximity to spore traps, and finally, with the number of plane trees. Furthermore, other factors, as the pruning, which is different in each city and even in a more local way, affects pollination and is frequently unknown to aerobiological studies. The geolocation of ornamental trees can be a useful tool for providing summarized information about their behavioral differences amongst cities, which can be used to create healthy itineraries, minimizing the natural hazards in human health (allergic diseases) and could be implemented into a model to help policy-makers to create measures to improve green urban development.     

城市生产绿地规划和建设若干问题探析

在阐述生产绿地相关概念的基础上,从城市绿地规划和经营管理两个层面对城市生产绿地规划和建设的现状、存在问题等进行分析,并结合重庆市荣昌县县城绿地系统规划案例,试图提出较为科学的生产绿地布置原则与对策。     

ABC of green infrastructure analysis and planning: The basic ideas and methodological guidance based on landscape ecological principle

Green infrastructure (GI) is a pivotal multifunctional approach for urban green spaces fragmentation problem. The green space fragmentation issue has increasingly caught worldwide researchers’ critical attention. However, researchers face challenges in understanding GI analysis and planning. Only limited research exists on GI analysis and planning case studies. Therefore, this study reviewed case studies on GI analysis and planning. The finding simplifies GI analysis and planning case studies methodology and critical points to get more worldwide researchers’ attention. The study applied a systematic literature review (SLR) on 34 qualified studies to determine the trends and similarities of GI case studies. Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA 2009) was adopted for the study. The review found a sequential methodological pattern in GI analysis and planning study. The review themes were trend analysis, basic study information, study nature, geographic information system (GIS) software and plugin, remote sensing processing and data needed, and analysis and output. Thus, the study provides a basic methodology and framework for developing GI analysis and planning based on the landscape ecology principle.     

The discourses,opportunities, and constraints in Canberra’s Green Infrastructure planning

Nowadays, Australian state and local governments consider Green Infrastructure (GI) planning as a mitigation and adaptation approach to make cities more resilient. Moreover, decision-makers have acknowledged and addressed social values, biodiversity, and habitat connectivity in policy documents. Canberra in the Australian Capital Territory (ACT), is a unique Australian city since it is totally designed as the National Capital of Australia and is built on a grassland plain, inspired by the Garden City concept. The green and open spaces have a symbolic value, representing Canberra as the national capital. However, Canberra is experiencing increasing urban development pressure, which threatens its green and open spaces. Thus, it is critical to explore the GI status in governance and decision-making in Canberra to guide its future planning. This research explores ten policy documents using a reflexive analysis to interpretatively critique policy documents and to diagnose the existing opportunities and constraints in Canberra’s GI planning. The documents were selected from 4 main defined scopes, Australian Government land-use responsibilities, ACT Government land-use planning and strategy, ACT Government greenspace planning, and Tree management regulations and mechanisms. This research identified dual governance (national/territory) and dual nature character (native/exotic) in the policy documents, which has intensified the complexity of GI planning. Another constraint was the lack of district level planning and a structured bottom-up approach. More flexibility in governance and collaboration between different governance levels and agencies is needed to make a more effective GI network, using the existing opportunities such as open space systems. Although GI principles have been addressed at Canberra’s strategic level, more comprehensive GI planning is needed to address all types of greenspaces.     

Spatial impacts of multimodal accessibility to green spaces on housing price in Cook County,Illinois

This study explores the impacts of multimodal accessibility to green space on housing price. Quantifying the benefits of green space accessibility is important for supporting green infrastructure planning and guiding land use development. In this study, we calculate multimodal travel times (walking and driving) from each residential property in Cook County (Chicago metro), Illinois to each articulated (public or significant private) green space. A gravity-model based method is used to compute accessibility (by travel mode), which considers the access to multiple green spaces and weights prioritization. Green spaces are divided into seven categories depending on their type and size to differentiate their potential benefits. Hedonic models using housing structural features, locational attributes, socio-economic factors and green space accessibility as explanatory variables, are used to evaluate housing price (using housing transactions records from 2010 sales in the county). The spatial effects of green space accessibilities on housing prices are explored by an Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) regression, with and without fixed locational effects, and a Geographically Weighted Regression (GWR). Results show walking and driving accessibility to all sizes of recreational, medium conversational and private green spaces present positive impacts on housing price, with some negative impacts to larger (and smaller) conservation areas. The relationship also exhibits different heterogeneous spatial pattern over the study area between walking and driving accessibility to green space, possibly related to economic variation.     

Health-related elements in green space branding in Hong Kong

A green city image of urban green spaces can provide positive benefits such as a stronger local identity, better socio-cultural ecosystem services, and ultimately the creation of a green city brand that attracts tourism and investment. This paper studies how urban green spaces can become a green brand that encompasses health-related elements. The health-related elements form part of the Green Brand Hexagon (GBH), as proposed in previous studies, and are tested with a sample of Hong Kong citizens (n = 301). The empirical results confirm the interrelation between these attributes and other GBH elements. The interrelation reveals a moderate association between the health-related elements and other green brand elements through regression model formulation. The findings suggest an extension of the health promotion value of the green spaces to the brand elements, focusing on the quality and the landscape aesthetic function of urban green spaces. While the effort of the public sector is highly recognized by the citizens, there should be an opportunity to thematize and brand the green city attributes to the public so that some of the problems of environmental gentrification and socio-environmental disconnection can be alleviated.     

Exploring public preferences and preference heterogeneity for green and blue infrastructure in urban green spaces

Green and blue urban infrastructure (GBI) has many positive functions often not recognised by residents (e.g., microclimate regulation, water retention, etc.). The question for urban planners who are aware of these functions when planning new GBI elements or revitalising existing GBI is how much they need to account for the preference heterogeneity of locals, who typically consider only aesthetic and recreational value. This study uses data from a discrete choice experiment among residents of the medium-sized Czech city of Liberec to reveal which combinations of nature-based or semi-natural GBI and recreational facilities respondents prefer and how strong their preferences are in terms of their willingness to pay. Overall, study respondents preferred nature-based GBI to semi-natural ones. A mixed-latent class model identified two groups of respondents who differ in preferences, trade-offs, and socio-demographic characteristics: (i) mostly older educated women who prefer nature-based elements and enjoy park infrastructure; (ii) mostly less educated men who dislike urban gardens and semi-natural streams and do not value park infrastructure. Based on the results, we recommend that spatial planners and green space managers design and implement more nature-based elements in Liberec, which are in line with the respondents’ preferences.     

郑州市居住区绿地植物应用现状调查

通过对郑州市内居住区绿地植物应用的实际勘察和现状分析,总结了郑州市居住区绿地中常用的植物种类,分析了居住区绿地规划设计中的植物配置的手法,并对居住区绿地植物配置中存在的不足提出了建议,为郑州市居住区进行更好的绿地建设提供参考依据。     

厦门市秋季太空架豆引种试验

为筛选出适合在福建厦门及周边地区种植的太空四季豆品种,首次引进太空架豆,以当地农家自留种为对照,调查了参试品种的生育期、经济性状、抗病性、品质、产量及效益。试验结果表明,太空架豆结荚期长、产量高,比对照增产57.4%,商品性、抗病性表现良好,豆荚纤维含量低或无,属无筋架豆,耐老化,有推广价值。     

Low-maintenance green tram tracks as a socially acceptable solution to greening a city

The creation of green tramways has become a common solution in many European cities in efforts to meet the increasing demands for green areas. However, maintaining high-quality vegetation requires costly maintenance. In this study, we assessed the possibility of managing green tram tracks in a manner that combines people’s attitudes with economic and ecological performance. We examined low-maintenance vegetation along existing tram tracks that has undergone natural succession to answer several specific questions. The aims of the present study include 1) assessment of how residents perceive the existing low-maintenance green tramways of various ages (1-11 years), 2) identification of measurable vegetation quality parameters affecting residents’ aesthetic preferences, and 3) assessment of whether viewing distance (from close up or from a distance) is a factor affecting residents’ perception of green tramways. Based on our results, green tramways were valued five times higher by residents than conventional tram tracks. Respondents indicated that the most important features of green tracks were vegetation coverage, with only a minority specifying factors such as uneven colour (33.9%) or the presence of weeds (7.1%). Perception also depended on turf age and biodiversity. Additionally, the greatest effect on the perception of tramways was the viewing perspective: as deficiencies in quality became less visible and were considered negligible, tramways were perceived 19% more favourably when viewed at a distance than when viewed close-up. The results of our research indicate that low-maintenance green tram tracks are an economically feasible solution for introducing more green areas into cities. Despite deficiencies in turf quality, this approach can become an accepted element of a city’s green infrastructure, and such a solution should be encouraged. Considering residents’ expectations, high-quality turf should be intensively maintained in only areas observed from a short distance.     

Green infrastructure practices for improvement of urban air quality

Green Infrastructure (GI) practices have shown to be promising in mitigating the air pollution in urban areas of several cities across the world. GI practices such as trees, green roofs and green walls are widely used in United States and Europe to mitigate the air pollution. However, there is yet limited knowledge available in identifying the most suitable GI strategy for an urban area in improving the air quality. Furthermore, it is evident that Australia is still lagging behind in adapting GI to mitigate air pollution, compared with US and Europe. Therefore, this study analyzed the air quality improvement through several GI scenarios consisting of trees, green roofs and green walls considering a case study area in Melbourne, Australia by using the i-Tree Eco software. The results were compared with case studies in different cities across the world. The results showed that the i-Tree Eco software can be successfully applied to an Australian case study area to quantify the air quality improvement benefits of GI. The results were further assessed with several environmental, economic and social indicators to identify the most suitable GI scenarios for the study area. These indicators were quantified using different methods, to assess the effectiveness of different GI scenarios. The results showed that, trees provided the highest air pollution removal capability among the different GI considered for the study area. Combination of different GI such as green roofs and green walls with trees did not provide a significant increment of air quality improvement however, has provided more local benefits such as building energy savings. The results obtained from this study were also beneficial in developing policies related to future GI applications in major cities of Australia for the air quality improvement.     

Residents’ use of remnant natural vegetation in the residential area of Järvafältet, Stockholm

In growing cities, there is a demand for development areas, which poses a threat to existing green areas. Therefore, it is of interest to know to what extent different types of green areas are used by residents. In the suburb of Järvafältet, situated 15 km outside Stockholm city centre, inhabitants’ use of patches of remnants of original natural vegetation in green areas has been studied by momentary observations from fixed points over the periods 1978–1982 and 2002–2004. The number of people, sex, age, type of activity, and place of that activity were noted. Overall, there has been a significant increase in the amount of use of these types of recreation areas between the two periods. The use by organized groups, as well as by adult walkers, runners and cyclists, increased the most, while individual children's play decreased. Almost every other child observed was found to be partaking in organized school or day nursery group activities. Children belonging to organized groups were seen as frequently in areas at a distance of less than 100 m from the houses as between 200 and 400 m from the built-up area, while children not participating in group activities were seen much more frequently in the areas closest to buildings. These types of green areas were used more by children and young people than by adults. This implies the likelihood that the use of these areas for recreation is underestimated in outdoor recreation inquiries and interview studies, where children are not usually included. Residents’ use of areas with remnant natural vegetation in cities shows that these areas have a recreational value as well as with other values. This makes them important to take into consideration in the planning and design process. Small areas close to residential areas need to be considered.     

Mapping research priorities for green and public urban space in the UK

Research mapping is a method of organising research information as part of a process of formulating a research policy in a specific area. A research mapping project was undertaken in the UK, which aimed to map existing and future research into public and green space, to identify gaps in order to help set priorities for future research, and to develop a freely accessible and searchable database of this research. The mapping was structured around two axes. The first axis was of research themes based on The Value of Public Space but developed further and broken down into sub-themes. The second axis was a typology of green and public space based around Planning and Policy Guidance Note 17 (PPG17) with elaboration from Green Spaces, Better Places. Research dating back to 10 years was collected together with information on recently completed, ongoing and planned UK research. Only research meeting specific quality criteria was included. Some information was also collected at a seminar where attendees from a range of organisations were invited to offer their perspectives on where research priorities should be directed. All the material was analysed and the main trends were identified. Three key cross-cutting themes common to much of the research were identified. These are the general lack of baseline surveys against which to assess progress over time; methodological issues, especially the need to standardise data collection methods and techniques; the classification of social groups, currently considered to be too crude.It was found that most research has been undertaken on physical aspects, such as planning and on biodiversity. Economic values have also been a focus, but on a smaller scale. Social research is quite well covered but very patchy. Management is better covered than maintenance. By far the weakest area represented in the research is health and well-being, both in terms of social groups and types of green space. Priorities for further research were then identified.