Networking of integrated pest management: A powerful approach to address common challenges in agriculture

Integrated pest management (IPM) is facing both external and internal challenges. External challenges include increasing needs to manage pests (pathogens, animal pests and weeds) due to climate change, evolution of pesticide resistance as well as virulence matching host resistance. The complexity of designing effective pest management strategies, which rely less heavily on the use of conventional pesticides, is another external challenge. Internal challenges include organizational aspects such as decreasing trend in budget allocated to IPM research, increasing scarcity of human expertise, lack of knowledge transfer into practice and the communication gap both at country level and between countries, and lack of multi-, inter- and transdisciplinary IPM research. There is an increasing awareness that trans-national networking is one means to overcome such challenges and to address common priorities in agriculture. A large number of stakeholders (researchers, policy makers, growers and industries) are involved in the sector of crop protection, which needs to be coordinated through effective communications and dynamic collaboration to make any IPM strategy successful. Here we discuss a decade-long IPM networking experiences in Europe emphasizing how IPM research, implementation and adoption in Europe may benefit from a broader level networking.     

Sublethal effects of spinosad and emamectin benzoate on larval development and reproductive activities of the cabbage moth,Mamestra brassicae L. (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

Lepidopteran insect pest management has relied heavily on synthetic chemical pesticides, but their efficiency is declining as a result of emerging insecticide resistance. Recently biopesticides have become the most promising products employed in pest management strategies. We investigated the sublethal effects of two bioinsecticides, spinosad and emamectin benzoate, on larval and pupal development, and reproductive activity including calling behaviour, pheromone production, fecundity and fertility of the cabbage moth, Mamestra brassicae. To assess sublethal effects, second instar larvae were fed with 0.005, 0.05, or 0.5 μg a.i. spinosad/g diet or 0.00005, 0.0005, or 0.005 μg a.i. emamectin benzoate/g diet. Both bioinsecticides significantly increased larval and pupal development time and negatively affected reproductive activity of M. brassicae. The calling activity of females decreased very significantly in the highest sublethal concentration of spinosad and in all treatments by emamectin benzoate. The results suggest that, both spinosad and emamectin benzoate are promising alternatives to conventional insecticides for the control of M. brassicae if successfully introduced into Integrated Pest Management (IPM) programs.     

Current status of IPM in apple orchards

Apple integrated pest management (IPM) research and the development of apple IPM programs through transfer technology activities of Extension and Advisory personnel and Crop Consultants has been intense and continuous for over 20 years, and current apple IPM programs vary largely from one country to another and even in different regions within a country. Factors that account for these differences include the number of major and minor pests, available technology, commitment to IPM approach, and financial and personnel support for IPM research, demonstration, and implementation. This short review discusses the basic approaches for managing arthropod pests and pathogens included in current apple IPM programs.     

Pesticide use in rice and rice–fish farms in the Mekong Delta, Vietnam

Pest management practices among rice and rice–fish farmers and their perception of problems related to pests and pesticides were surveyed in the Mekong Delta. A total number of 64 different pesticides were identified during the survey. Approximately 50% were insecticides, 25% were fungicides and 25% were herbicides. The main insecticides used were pyrethroids (42%) carbamates (23%) and cartap (19%). Non-IPM farmers used twice as many pesticides as IPM farmers. Their application frequency and the amount of active ingredient used were 2–3 times higher per crop, as compared to IPM farmers. During the last three years IPM farmers estimated that they had decreased the amount of pesticides used by approximately 65%, while non-IPM farmers said that they had increased the amount of pesticide used by 40%. Also, farmers growing fish in their rice fields used less pesticide than farmers growing only rice, as pesticides adversely affect cultures of fish. Taking a long-term perspective integrated rice–fish farming with IPM practices provides a sustainable alternative to intensive rice mono-cropping, both from an economic as well as an ecological point of view.     

Effects of integrated pest management, biological control and prophylactic use of insecticides on the management and sustainability of soybean

This study aimed to evaluate the prophylactic use of insecticides (PUI) in comparison with integrated pest management (IPM) and biological control (BC) strategies. Five replicated experiments were carried out independently in two Brazilian soybean-producing states, Goiás and Paraná, where those pest-control strategies were evaluated during two consecutive growing seasons. The evaluated treatments were integrated pest management (IPM); prophylactic use of insecticides (PUI), a practice that has been increasingly adopted by soybean growers in Brazil as well as in other Latin American countries; biological control (BC) and the control (C), which involved no pest treatment. Although the pest infestation rates in the BC and IPM treatments were higher than that in the PUI treatment, crop productivity, in general, was similar among these treatments and differed only from the control with no pest treatment. These results indicate that the prophylactic use of insecticides on soybeans does not result in higher productivity in the field and that this practice merely requires larger amounts of pesticides, which can impair the sustainability of the soybean crop. Therefore, the use of IPM still remains the best alternative for pest management in soybean fields.     

Perspectives of integrated pest management

Integrated pest management (IPM) programmes require joint interdisciplinary scientific efforts to assemble sound information about: (1) the ecological basis of the pest problem; (2) factors in the agroecosystem that can be manipulated to make the crop environment unfavourable for pests; (3) pest and natural enemy population trends to determine if and when pesticide treatments are necessary; and (4) the benefits and risks of the IPM strategy for agriculture and society. The IPM technology is complex and this is partly why implementation of IPM has been slow. Projections are that if IPM is adopted by agriculture, pesticide use could be reduced by 35–50% from present use levels. Concurrently there would be a reduction in environmental and social problems caused by pesticides.     

Effective invertebrate pest management in dryland cropping in southern Australia: The challenge of marginality

Despite research efforts spanning many decades, invertebrate pest control in arable farming systems is still heavily reliant on broad-spectrum pesticides. Yet industry wants to implement Integrated Pest Management (IPM) principles. We suspect that the lack of implementation to date reflects the unpredictable nature of outbreaks of pests and unpredictable profit margins, creating an environment where growers prefer to follow a cautious chemical-based approach. Using southern Australia as a case study, we argue for a new approach where the concept of rigid management strategies is abandoned in favor of landscape changes, host plant resistance, ecological indicators, reliable predictors and emergency intervention strategies. This approach needs to be based on developing more stable crop environments that can limit fundamental niches available for exploitation by sporadic pest populations, and increasing crop resilience to resident herbivores. Fall-back strategies, including broad-spectrum chemical control, may still be required to protect productivity at times when outbreaks of pest populations take place. These are likely to be unavoidable, particularly given emerging climate challenges.     

Factors determining adoption of integrated pest management by vegetable growers in Nakhon Ratchasima Province,Thailand

Widespread use of highly toxic pesticides primarily for agricultural purpose has generated increasing concerns about the negative impact of pesticides on human health and the environment. Integrated pest management (IPM) usually seeks to minimize the use of pesticides and can be utilized to solve pest problems while minimizing risks to people and the environment. A total of 220 vegetable farmers in Nakhon Ratchasima Province of Thailand was interviewed with the objective of investigating the factors determining their adoption or non-adoption of IPM practices. The findings demonstrated that farmers had different uncompromising reasons for determining the use of IPM for their insect pest management. Higher costs of insecticides (91%), adverse effects of insecticides on human health and the environment (80%), and a greater risk of insect pests developing resistance to insecticides (28%) were the primary reasons for the adoption of IPM by vegetable growers in the study area. The reasons for the rejection of IPM practice were unsuitability of IPM for a large farm (52%), implementation difficulties (80%) and a greater belief in synthetic insecticides and their efficacy for target pest control (39%). A comparison between the IPM and the non-IPM farmers showed a significant difference (P < 0.01) in farmers' knowledge of pest management, which influenced IPM adoption or non-adoption. The IPM farmers had greater knowledge about identifying natural enemies and their beneficial role in controlling insect pests, about plant extracts and their efficacy in controlling insect pests and about sticky traps and their efficacy in monitoring natural enemies and controlling insect pests. For example, 24% of IPM farmers had knowledge of natural enemies whereas it was only 4% for the non-IPM farmers. A logistic regression model was fitted which showed that lower cost of pest management, better knowledge on IPM after training and availability of extension services were the factors which influenced farmers' adoption of IPM practice. The non-IPM farmers rejected adoption of IPM due to the common belief that natural enemies would not be effective in controlling insect pests and yields of vegetables would not be increased by practicing IPM.     

An Australian approach to IPM in cotton: integrating new technologies to minimise insecticide dependence

Insect pests represent a severe limitation for cotton production in many regions of the world. Key pests include several Heliothine moths, which are well adapted to exploit cropping systems associated with cotton and often evolve resistance to pesticides. While many components of IPM have been implemented, the main intervention for the management of key pests continues to be insecticides. This reliance on pesticides brings significant environmental liabilities of off-target drift, chemical residues and resistance. IPM must be founded on a thorough understanding of the ecology of pest and beneficial species and their interaction with the crop. The emerging era of insect resistant transgenic cottons offers real prospects to provide a foundation for more sustainable, economically acceptable IPM with the integration of a range of non-chemical tactics and much less reliance on pesticides.     

Impact of integrated pest management of vegetables on pesticide use in subtropical Jammu,India

In a study at the subtropical vegetable-growing areas of the state of Jammu and Kashmir (J&K), a quasi-experimental research design with a non-equivalent control group was employed to examine the impact of an integrated pest management (IPM) program implemented from 2008 to 2010 on the adoption of non-chemical pest management practices, pesticide use by weight (active ingredient [a.i.]), pesticide use frequency, field use environment impact (FEIQ) and safe handling and application of pesticides by IPM-trained farmers. There was no significant change in adoption of non-chemical practices, other than pheromone traps used by okra (Abelmoschus esculentus (L.) Moench) growers. Growers reduced FEIQ by 17.9 per hectare from 2008 to 2010. Pesticide use (a.i.) did not decrease significantly, and frequency decreased significantly by 72.4% only in cauliflower (Brassica oleracea L. var. botrytis). The vegetable growers did not use protective equipment while handling and applying pesticides thus putting themselves at risk. Implementation of IPM thus needs to be reexamined to significantly reduce pesticide use by weight, treatment frequency and FEIQ.     

Relative toxicity of insecticides to the crucifer pests Plutella xylostella and Myzus persicae and their natural enemies

The widespread and intensive use of conventional pesticides, particularly insecticides, presents a major risk to natural enemies of target pests, as well as to the environment in general. The aim of this study was to investigate the differential intrinsic toxicity of insecticides to two key pests of crucifers, Plutella xylostella and Myzus persicae and their respective hymenopteran parasitoids, Cotesia vestalis and Aphidius colemani. Such knowledge can help inform effective integration of insecticides and biological control in IPM systems. Three insecticides generally regarded as being compatible with natural enemies (abamectin, spinosad and indoxacarb) and one compound regarded as harmful to natural enemies (lambda-cyhalothrin) were examined. A comparative measure of the intrinsic toxicity of fresh deposits of insecticides on Chinese cabbage leaf discs was determined for both pest and parasitoids species after exposure to insecticide for 24 h and 120 h, and after 24 h exposure to insecticide plus 96 h on untreated leaf discs. Differences in the susceptibility of pests and parasitoids to different insecticides were marked for P. xylostella and C. vestalis, LC₅₀ values being significantly lower for the pest species. Such differences were not observed for M. persicae and A. colemani. There was a direct relationship between dose, exposure time and toxicity for all insecticides tested. All insecticides tested showed lower toxicity to both parasitoids compared with P. xylostella, which suggests that for this pest species side-effects on parasitoids can be minimised through IPM practices that reduce exposure time to such non-target organisms.     

Research and Extension Supporting Ecologically Based IPM Systems

Summary

Integrated Pest Management (IPM) has a long history of developing pest management strategies based on ecological principles. While IPM systems differ in their reliance on chemical controls, an ecological approach to IPM offers opportunities both to test ecological theory and to develop novel pest management techniques. We review ecological concepts relevant to habitat management as a tool for managing pest and natural enemy populations in annual cropping systems, and we describe a case study of the impacts of habitat management on predatory ground beetles (Coleoptera: Carabidae) in annual cropping systems. Experimental manipulation of carabid population density revealed a positive relationship between the abundance of carabids in cropland and prey removal. Provision of stable refuge habitats in annual crops increased carabid species richness and abundance. Further studies demonstrated that the presence of refuge habitats mitigated the impacts of insecticide disturbance on carabid abundance and community structure in adjacent cropland. These results were used as part of a program to educate extension agents and producers in the principles of agroecology and ecologically based pest management. We encourage extension agents and producers to test novel practices using adaptive management. In this approach, predictions are formulated regarding specific management practices and evaluated against the results. Based on these observations, management is then adapted to yield the desired outcome. Such an approach recognizes the inherent uncertainty of multifactor ecological manipulation while providing producers with methods to manage this uncertainty.     

Intelligent geographic information systems and integrated pest management

Research in integrated pest management (IPM) has resulted in the development of an immense knowledge base that requires computer-aided methodologies for integration, interpretation and delivery. Examined in this paper are four issues of concern to decision-making and problem-solving for IPM. First, the IPM enterprise is examined in the context of contemporary landscape ecology principles. The functional unit for IPM is defined to be the ecotope (a term intended to embody concepts of ecosystem functionality in the context of topographical dimension). A landscape consists of a mosaic of interacting ecotopes. The scope of IPM extends beyond forest and farm management and includes issues associated with environmental management. Second, the utility of geographic information systems (GISs) for IPM is considered. GISs add a new dimension to IPM in that they provide a mechanism for dealing with site-specific and spatially referenced data. The addition of methodologies from artificial intelligence expert systems, in particular, permits integration of qualitative knowledge of human experts with quantitative information that is the product of research. The resulting software system is termed an intelligent geographic information system, IGIS. This system allows for automated interpretation within and among landscape data themes. The product is an interpretative map or a tabular report. Third, utility of the IGIS approach is illustrated by an example involving habitat delineation for an endangered species, the Houston toad. In this example a simple rulebase is developed that defines habitat locations that would be suitable for the toad. Fourth, a concept and method for integrating the different types of knowledge available for IPM (published research results and reports, spatial and tabular databases, simulation models, and observations and experiences of human experts) is described. This software system, the knowledge system environment, retains the unique features of an IGIS but is more useful in that it employs the full measure of knowledge available from IPM. With new technology from computer science and concepts from information engineering, it has been possible to formulate a new conceptual model of IPM that incorporates both the information systems needed as well as the activities required for implementation of IPM.     

Determinants of integrated pest management adoption for olive fruit fly (Bactrocera oleae) in Roudbar,Iran

Extensive use of highly toxic pesticides for pest management has generated concerns over the negative impact of these chemicals on both human health and the environment. The use of integrated pest management (IPM) can address some of these concerns, but studies on the adoption behavior of growers are generally limited. A survey of 171 olive growers was conducted to analyze factors determining adoption of IPM practices for the control of olive fruit fly (Bactrocera oleae) in Roudbar county of Guilan province, Iran. Data were collected through face-to-face interviews with randomly selected olive growers of the study area using a structured questionnaire. Some growers (9.9%) did not adopt any IPM practice for olive fruit fly control, while the majority of the growers (almost 54%) showed some low level of adoption. Twelve variables were found to be strongly correlated with adoption of IPM practices for olive fruit fly control. The strongest link was demonstrated with growers' annual income, land area under cultivation, farming experience, extension activities, technical knowledge, and average olive fruit production. Discriminant analysis was used to identify the variables with the greatest power of classifying growers in three groups of IPM adopters (low, medium, and high level of adoption). The variable: farming experience and especially the olive farming experience along with the variables: family size and extension activities gave an overall classification accuracy of 72.1%, implying a strong capability of correctly differentiating growers in the IPM groups. Understanding growers' characteristics and behavior concerning the adoption of IPM can be a first major step for boosting adoption rates among olive growers of the study area or among growers of other areas with a similar profile. To this end, government policies should strengthen growers' technical knowledge of IPM concerning olive fruit fly through extension services and community involvement, particularly among inexperienced small-scale growers.     

Selection of bifenthrin resistance in cotton mealybug Phenacoccus solenopsis Tinsley (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae): Cross-resistance,realized heritability and possible resistance mechanism

Cotton mealybug Phenacoccus solenopsis Tinsley is an important pest of cotton in Pakistan, and its management is difficult due to the development of insecticide resistance. This research was conducted to characterize the bifenthrin resistance in populations of P. solenopsis and different parameters such as cross-resistance, realized heritability and possible resistance mechanisms were studied to improve the management of this important pest. A field-collected population was selected with bifenthrin in the laboratory for 14 generations and developed a resistance of 178-fold. The realized heritability of bifenthrin resistance was 0.54 in the selected population. The toxicity of bifenthrin was synergized by the addition of either piperonylbutoxide (PBO) or S,S,S tributylphosphorotrithioate (DEF) which suggests a general metabolic resistance due to possible involvement of mono-oxygenases or esterases. However, the resistant population did not develop a significant cross-resistance to either buprofezin, chlorpyrifos or lambda-cyhalothrin. These data suggest that alternative insecticide-based management programs can be developed for this pest in the short-term, but resistance management strategies which can reduce the sole reliance on insecticides are still needed.     

Development of site-specific IPM against European grapevine moth Lobesia botrana (D. & S.) in vineyards

The aim of this study was to evaluate the potential for site-specific IPM of the European grapevine moth, Lobesia botrana (Denis & Shiffermüller), in a Mediterranean agricultural landscape in central Italy. In 2005-2006, sampling was conducted to verify the spatio-temporal distribution of L. botrana eggs, larvae and adult populations in the investigated agro-ecosystem. On the basis of these results, we applied tactics in 2007 and 2008 to reduce the outer source of the infestation by establishing a pheromone trap barrier system to prevent the movement of male adults from the olive groves into the vineyards, and to test the hypothesis that a within-field site-specific control results in reduced insecticide requirements compared with a traditional uniform IPM protocol. Sampling and control operations were carried out to avoid an increase of economic and labour efforts, leaving as much as possible the costs at the same level of a standard monitoring program. The results highlighted that male hot spots in olive groves disappeared, and that the number of larval nests on vine inflorescences was significantly decreased, when additional traps were deployed (2007-2008) compared to the period before (2005-2006). The site-specific control, i.e. treating only egg hot spots with Bacillus thuringensis var. kurstaki, allowed for a decrease in the surface of the treated vineyard and, consequently, the quantity of insecticide utilised. In 2008, no significant differences between uniform and site-specific IPM in vineyards were observed in the number of damaged berries and the percentage of infested bunches. The results are discussed with respect to the spatial pattern of pest populations, site-specific IPM tactics, sampling operations and pest control costs.     

IPM for food storage in developing countries: 20th Century aspirations for the 21st Century

In tropical developing countries, especially in humid zones, pest infestation in stored food is inevitable. In the past, the focus of tropical storage pest management was on adapting pest control techniques with contact insecticides and fumigants that had proved effective in industrialized countries. Three decades ago it was still widely assumed that these techniques would continue to provide a panacea for the foreseeable future. At the end of the century, the reality is very different: widespread resistance; non-efficacy of surface treatments; no ‘fifth generation’ of pesticides; narrow choice of fumigants; and consumer demand for minimal or zero residues. In response, research on biorational alternatives has increased in recent years, especially on ‘additives’. By contrast, research on ecologically-based alternatives has stagnated. Studies of the synecology of storage pest communities remain very rare. Few authors have addressed the particular problems of IPM decision-making in storage, and in practice the emphasis is on pragmatic mixtures of control methods rather than a calculated application of optimum procedures in response to monitoring and risk assessment. At the end of the 20th Century, IPM in food stores is still an aspiration rather than a reality, and we still have much to learn about the ecology and behaviour of pests in the post-harvest system if we are to achieve an IPM approach to storage pests in the 21st Century.     

辽宁省玉米田农药使用现状、存在问题与建议

针对辽宁省玉米田农药使用情况进行深入调查,结果表明,当前辽宁省玉米田病虫草害防治以化学农药为主,用量最大的除草剂为莠去津,用量最大的杀虫剂是二嗪磷,用量最大的杀菌剂为福美双.在农药的使用过程中,存在农民对农药科学使用技术认知不足、用药技术落后、抗药性发展等问题.建议采取普及农药科学使用方法和安全使用准则、推广高效高质量...     

Trials of an integrated pest management programme based on selective pesticides in English apple orchards

An integrated pest management (IPM) programme for apple involving selective insecticides applied in response to monitoring and using non-acaricidal fungicides was compared with a routine ‘calendar’ broad-spectrum programme over a 5-year period. This IPM system optimized the effect of natural enemies. From the second season onwards the predacious phytoseiid mite, Typhlodromus pyri, reached sufficient numbers to regulate Panonychus ulmi at low, non-damaging numbers. T. pyri also suppressed apple rust mite, Aculus schlechtendali, over most of this period. No acaricides were required on the IPM plots in the last 3 years of the trial. Small reductions in the number of insecticide/acaricide applications were made on the IPM plots but insect damage to fruit, especially by lepidopterous larvae, was higher than on the broad-spectrum plots. Several pests now rarely seen in commercial orchards built up on IPM plots and required specific treatments. The results are discussed in relation to further development of a commercially applicable IPM system.