The variable response of dryland corn yield to soil water content at planting

Farmers in the central Great Plains want to diversify crop rotations from the traditional monoculture system of winter wheat-fallow. Corn (Zea mays L.) could work well as a rotation crop, but inputs are expensive and farmers would like to know the chances of producing a certain yield before investing in seed, fertilizer, herbicides, etc. Information on the yield response of corn to available soil water at planting could help guide the crop choice decision regarding corn. This study was conducted to determine if a predictive relationship exists between dryland corn yield and available soil water at planting time and, if such a relationship exists, to use it to assess the risk in obtaining profitable yields. Yield and soil water data from 10 years of a dryland crop rotation study at Akron, CO were analyzed by linear regression to determine predictive relationships. The yield-soil water content production function was highly variable, with values ranging from 0.0 to 67.3 kg ha⁻¹ per mm of available soil water in the 0 to 1.8 m soil profile at planting. The differences in yield response to soil water were related to the amount and timing of precipitation that fell during the corn growing season. Because dryland corn yield is highly dependent on precipitation during reproductive and grain-filling stages, soil water content at corn planting cannot be used alone to reliably determine whether corn should be planted in a flexible rotational system. The predictive relationships developed in this study indicate that under typical amounts of available soil water at corn planting, profitable corn production under dryland conditions is a risky and speculative activity in the central Great Plains of the United States.     

Root growth, water potential, and yield of irrigated rice

Root length density (Lv), leaf water potential (Ψ leaf) and yield of rice were studied in 1983 and 1984 on a Phool bagh clay loam (Typic Haplaquoll) and on a Beni silty clay loam (Aquic Hapludoll) in the Tarai region of Uttar Pradesh under naturally fluctuating shallow (0.07–0.92 m) and medium-depth (0.13–1.26 m) water table conditions with six water regimes ranging from continuous submergence under 0.05 m ± 0.02 m (Ic) to completely rainfed (Io). In irrigation treatments, Ic1, Ic3, Ic5, and Ic7, 0.07 m irrigation was applied on days 1, 3, 5, and 7 respectively, after the disappearance of ponded water. Maximum rooting depth (0.55 m in the shallow and 0.65 m in the medium-depth water table) was attained at the dough stage (125 days after transplanting) and was more strongly influenced by fluctuations in water table depth than by the water regime. For wet regimes (Ic1–Ic5), roots were concentrated at and above the water table interface and had greater horizontal development, whereas in dry regimes, (Ic7 and Io) they were concentrated in lower horizons and had a more vertical distribution. Like Lv, Ψ leaf was not significantly affected by water regime up to 90–95 days after rice transplanting but was significantly affected thereafter, except for Lv beneath 0.2 m–0.25 m. Grain yields with irrigation treatments Ic1 and Ic3 under shallow and Ic1 under medium-depth water table conditions were not significantly different from those under continuous submergence, but there was a (nonsignificant) trend to lower yield with less water. However, differences among the wet regimes (Ic, Ic1, and Ic3) were small (141–490 kg ha^–1) under shallow and 413–727 kg ha^–1 under medium-depth water table conditions. The results demonstrate that optimum yield (5500–6000 kg ha^–1) could be obtained under Tarai conditions by adopting an intermittent irrigation schedule of 3–5 days after the disappearance of ponded water under shallow, and of 1–3 days under medium-depth water table conditions, in place of continuous submergence. Received: 26 February 1996     

Root growth, water potential and yield of irrigated wheat

Root length density (LV), mid-day leaf water potential (Ψ _leaf) and yield of wheat were studied in 1983 – 1984 and 1984 – 1985 on a Phoolbagh clay loam (Typic Haplaquoll) and on a Beni silty clay loam (Aquic Hapludoll) in the Tarai region of Uttar Pradesh under naturally fluctuating shallow (0.4 – 0.9 m, SWT) and medium-depth (0.8 – 1.3 m, MWT) water table conditions with six water regimes: rainfed (I₀); irrigation at cown root initiation (I₁); at crown root initiation and milk (I₂); at crown root initiation, maximum tillering and milk (I₃); at crown root initiation, maximum tillering, flowering and milk (I₄); and at crown root initiation, maximum tillering, flowering, milk and dough (I₅). Maximum rooting depth (0.8 m under SWT and 1.05 m under MWT conditions) was attained at the dough stage (115 days after sowing, DAS) and was more strongly influenced by fluctuations in water table depth than by the water regime. For wet regimes (I₂– I₅), roots were concentrated at and above the water table interface and had greater horizontal development, whereas in dry regimens (I₀ and I₁), due to deficient moisture conditions in the upper soil layer (0.45 m) they invaded lower horizons and had a greater vertical distribution Ψ _leaf was not significantly affected by water regime (I₁– I₅) up to 94 DAS during a wet year (1983 – 1984) and up to 74 DAS during a dry year (1984 – 1985), but was significantly affected thereafter. Grain yields with water regimens I₁– I₅ during a wet year and for the I₂– I₅ treatments during a dry year at either water table depth were not significantly different, but there was a (non-significant) trend to lower yield with increasing soil water deficit. Under SWT in I₂, the average grain yield wsa 5130 kg ha^–1 and under the I₃ regime, 5200 kg ha^–1. Likewise, under MWT in I₃, it was 5188 kg ha^–1 and under the I₄ regime, 5218 kg ha^–1. The results indicate that application of irrigation of more than 120 and 180 mm under SWT and MWT conditions, respectively, did not raise yield. Irrigation given as per schedule I₂ under SWT and I₃ under MWT conditions in the Tarai situation, appears to be more effective than a very wet regime (I₅). Received: 9 December 1997     

Water use,water-use efficiency and yield of dryland chickpea as influenced by P fertilization,stored soil water and crop season rainfall

Dryland chickpea is grown on stored water in the soil profile and with limited crop season rainfall (CSR). In a field experiment, carried out for 3 years on silty loam soil, water extraction pattern, water use and its efficiency by chickpea in relation to P application, stored soil water and crop season rainfall have been investigated. Stored soil water varied from 182 to 246 mm in a meter profile and the CSR varied from 72 to 184 mm.Response of P application increased with increasing initial water storage in the soil profile. The first 60–100 days of crop growth appeared to be the most critical. Water stress during this period severely affected the yield. Rainfall after 100 days did not appear to have been fully utilized by the crop, especially when the crop had already suffered from water stress between 60 and 100 days. Compared with the control, P application increased yield, water use and water-use efficiency. Soil water depletion was 25% greater for the fertilized crop than for the unfertilized crop.     

Evaluating water stress in irrigated olives: correlation of soil water status,tree water status,and thermal imagery

Irrigation of olive orchards is challenged to optimize both yields and oil quality. Best management practices for olive irrigation will likely depend on the ability to maintain mild to moderate levels of water stress during at least some parts of the growing season. We examined a number of soil, plant and remote sensing parameters for evaluating water stress in bearing olive (var. Barnea) trees in Israel. The trees were irrigated with five water application treatments (30, 50, 75, 100 and 125% of potential evapotranspiration) and the measurements of soil water content and potential, mid-day stem water potential, and stomatal resistance were taken. Remote thermal images of individual trees were used to alternatively measure average canopy temperature and to calculate the tree’s crop water stress index (CWSI), testing empirical and analytical approaches. A strong non-linear response showing similar trends and behavior was evident in soil and plant water status measurements as well as in the CWSI, with decreasing rates of change at the higher irrigation application levels. No statistically significant difference was found between the analytical and the empirical CWSI, suggesting that the relative simplicity of the analytical method would make it preferable in practical applications.     

Simulation of heat and water transfer in a surface irrigated, cropped sandy soil

Field experiments were conducted to validate a one-dimensional numerical Simple Soil Plant Atmospheric Transfer (SiSPAT) model that simulates heat and water transfer through the root zone of a surface irrigated, cropped sandy soil. The model accounts for the dominant processes involved in water and heat transfer in a cropped soil. Model validation used field experimental data from 2004 and suggested that the SiSPAT model could be successfully applied to predict soil water and temperature dynamics of a cropped soil in experimental conditions. Validation resulted in high values of model efficiency (ME), and low values of root mean square deviation (RMSD) and mean bias error (MBE) between the simulated and measured values. Model predictions were obtained using field experimental data from 2005 and showed that the SiSPAT model reproduced reasonably well the experimental distributions of soil moisture and temperature. Minor discrepancies between the predicted and measured data during the prediction period can probably be attributed to the uncertainties in soil water content and soil temperature probe measurements. In addition, the influence of irrigation water temperature on water and heat transfer was ignored in the model. This could have contributed to deviations between the simulated and measured values during the experiment. Prediction results indicated that the variability of the water and heat transfer fluxes following a surface irrigation in different stages of the crop (wheat) growth season resulted from the difference in net radiation reaching the cropped soil due to the varying shielding factor as controlled by leaf area index (LAI), root water uptake, meteorological conditions and soil water regime. Furthermore, an interaction between water and heat transfer through the root zone in the cropped soil could be observed during the prediction period.     

Growth and water use of eucalypt trees irrigated with saline drainage water

Leaf chemical composition, growth and water use of Eucalyptus camaldulensis (Lake Albacutya provenance) were measured in the 4th year of a split-plot salinity by nutrition trial. The main plot consisted of irrigating with five different water salinities: 0.5 dS/m (S0.5), 2 dS/m (S2), 5 dS/m (S5), 7.5 dS/m (S7.5) and 10 dS/m (S10). The subplot treatments consisted either of annual additions of 200 kg N and 100 kg P per hectare (+ N + P) or no addition of nutrients (– N – P). Irrigation with water from a drainage system (treatments S2, S5, S7.5 and S10) added about a further 100 kg N/ha annually. Leaf concentrations of N and P were higher in the + N + P treatments. In S0.5, nutrient addition stimulated growth. In + N + P treatments, raising the irrigation salinity from 0.5 to 2.0 dS/m increased leaf Na and decreased the growth rate, however, further increases in salinity affected neither leaf Na nor growth. In – N – P, growth rate depression due to inadequate nutrition was overcome in S2 and S5 by the 100 kg/ha of N in the drainage water. At higher salinities, the N added by drainage water did not overcome the effect of inadequate nutrition. On days when the reference crop evapotranspiration (ETo) was less than 3 mm/day, the correlations between water use of trees in litres per day and ETo and between water use of trees in litres per day and the basal area of the tree butt were highly significant. On days when the ETo was 3 mm/day or greater, the correlation between tree water use and basal area was highly significant, but that between tree water use and ETo was not significant. Received: 15 March 1996     

Dynamics and modeling of soil water under subsurface drip irrigated onion

Subsurface drip irrigation provides water to the plants around the root zone while maintaining a dry soil surface. A problem associated with the subsurface drip irrigation is the formation of cavity at the soil surface above the water emission points. This can be resolved through matching dripper flow rates to the soil hydraulic properties. Such a matching can be obtained either by the field experiments supplemented by modeling. Simulation model (Hydrus-2D) was used and tested in onion crop (Allium cepa L.) irrigated through subsurface drip system during 2002-2003, 2003-2004 and 2004-2005. Onion was transplanted at a plant to plant and row to row spacing of 10 cm × 15 cm with 3 irrigation levels and 6 depths of placement of drip lateral. The specific objective of this study was to assess the effect of depth of placement of drip laterals on crop yield and application of Hydrus-2D model for the simulation of soil water. In sandy loam soils, it was observed that operating pressures of up to 1.0 kg cm⁻² did not lead to the formation of cavity above the subsurface dripper having drippers of 2.0 l h⁻¹ discharge at depths up to 30 cm. Wetted soil area of 60 cm wide and up to a depth of 30 cm had more than 18% soil water content, which was conducive for good growth of crop resulting in higher onion yields when drip laterals were placed either on soil surface or placed up to depths of 15 cm. In deeper placement of drip lateral (20 and 30 cm below surface), adequate soil water was found at 30, 45 and 60 cm soil depth. Maximum drainage occurred when drip lateral was placed at 30 cm depth. Maximum onion yield was recorded at 10 cm depth of drip lateral (25.7 t ha⁻¹). The application of Hydrus-2D confirmed the movement of soil water at 20 and 30 cm depth of placement of drip laterals. The model performance in simulating soil water was evaluated by comparing the measured and predicted values using three parameters namely, AE, RMSE and model efficiency. Distribution of soil water under field experiment and by model simulation at different growth stages agreed closely and the differences were statistically insignificant. The use of Hydrus-2D enabled corroborating the conclusions derived from the field experimentation made on soil water distribution at different depths of placement of drip laterals. This model helped in designing the subsurface drip system for efficient use of water with minimum drainage.     

Variability of soil water tension in a trickle irrigated Chile pepper field

Summary Soil-water tension variability in a 0.15 hectare drip irrigated chile pepper field was evaluated in order to determine the number of tensiometers required for scheduling irrigations in such a field. Four plots were irrigated with a trickle irrigation system. Fifty tensiometers were installed in each plot and monitored on 13 days using a handheld pressure transducer (tensimeter). The standard deviations of the soil-water tensions were relatively high (30 cm at 50 cm tension) and increased when the soil became drier (180 cm at 400 cm tension). The variability of the log-transformed soil-water tension values did not increase as the soil became drier. Forty-eight out of 52 sets of soil water tension measurements were approximately log-normally distributed. Therefore, it appears that the log-transformed soil-water tension values should be used for statistical inference about the mean soil water status of the field. Temporal stability of the soil-water tension readings persisted for one irrigation interval. Using a previously determined production function (yield versus soil-water tension) it is shown for this field that about seven tensiometers are needed to determine the threshold tension value above which yields start to decrease.     

Leaf permeability as an index of water relations,CO2 uptake and yield of irrigated wheat

Summary An irrigation experiment was conducted on wheat in the northern Negev, Israel. The growing season rainfall was 198 mm; six irrigation treatments, ranging from 0 to 320 mm were applied at different stages of growth. The grain yields ranged from 1.20 to 5.84 t/ha. Stomatal aperture was evaluated by leaf permeability, as measured with a fast-reading viscous flow porometer. Other indices of soil-plant water status measured were: soil moisture with a neutron probe; leaf water potential with a pressure chamber; CO₂ uptake with a ¹⁴CO₂-pulse apparatus; and leaf water saturation deficit.For the penultimate and flag leaves, midday leaf permeability was highly correlated with the soil moisture in the upper 60-cm layer. CO₂-uptake, however, remained constantly high (ca. 0.8 mg m^–2s^–1 = 29 mg dm^–2h^–1) throughout a wide range of leaf permeability, from 10 down to 2 porometer units (p. u.); below this value, it decreased linearly with leaf permeability. Therefore, the value of 2 p. u. was tentatively regarded as a critical value for judging the critical values of the other indices studied; these were estimated to be: leaf water potential, –1.57 MPa = –15.7 bars; leaf saturation deficit, 18,8% and soilmoisture, 12.6% representing a 83% depletion of the available moisture in the Gilat soil. The grain yield was highly negatively correlated with the duration of period when the soil moisture was below these critical values. The use of the porometer method for evaluating water stress is discussed.     

Evapotranspiration, seed yield and water use efficiency of drip irrigated sunflower under full and deficit irrigation conditions

Deficit irrigation occurrence while maintaining acceptable yield represents a useful trait for sunflower production wherever irrigation water is limited. A 2-year experiment (2003–2004) was conducted at Tal Amara Research Station in the Bekaa Valley of Lebanon to investigate sunflower response to deficit irrigation. In the plots, irrigation was held at early flowering (stage F1), at mid flowering (stage F3.2) and at early seed formation (stage M0) until physiological maturity. Deficit-irrigated treatments were referred to as WS1, WS2 and WS3, respectively, and were compared to a well-irrigated control (C). Reference evapotranspiration (ET_rye-grass) and crop evapotranspiration (ET_crop) were measured each in a set of two drainage lysimeters of 2 m × 2 m × 1 m size cultivated with rye grass (Lolium perenne) and sunflower (Helianthus annuus L., cv. Arena). Crop coefficients (K_c) in the different crop growth stages were derived as the ratio (ET_crop/ET_rye-grass).

Lysimeter measured crop evapotranspiration (ET_crop) totaled 765 mm in 2003 and 882 mm in 2004 for total irrigation periods of 139 and 131 days, respectively. Daily ET_crop achieved a peak value of 13.0 mm day⁻¹ at flowering time (stage F3.2; 80–90 days after sowing) when LAI was >6.0 m² m⁻². Then ET_crop declined to 6.0 mm day⁻¹ during seed maturity phase. Average K_c values varied from 0.3 at crop establishment (sowing to four-leaf stage), to 0.9 at late crop development (four-leaf stage to terminal bud), to >1.0 at flowering stage (terminal bud to inflorescence visible), then to values <1.0 at seed maturity phase (head pale to physiological maturity). Measured K_c values were close to those reported by the FAO.

Average across years, seed yield at dry basis on the well-irrigated treatment was 5.36 t ha⁻¹. Deficit irrigation at early (WS1) and mid (WS2) flowering stages reduced seed yield by 25% and 14% (P < 0.05), respectively, in comparison with the control. However, deficit irrigation at early seed formation was found to increase slightly seed yield in WS3 treatment (5.50 t ha⁻¹). We concluded that deficit irrigation at early seed formation (stage M0) increased the fraction of assimilate allocation to the head, compensating thus the lower number of seeds per m² through increased seed weight. In this experiment, while deficit irrigation did not result in any remarkable increase in harvest index (HI), water use efficiency (WUE) was found to vary significantly (P < 0.05) among treatments, where the highest (0.83 kg m⁻³) and the lowest (0.71 kg m⁻³) values were obtained from WS3 and WS1 treatments, respectively. Finally, results indicate that irrigation limitation at early flowering (stage F1) and mid flowering (stage F3.2) should be avoided while it can be acceptable at seed formation (stage M0).     

Effects of deficit irrigation scheduling on yields and soil water balance of irrigated maize

This paper presents the findings of the effect of some selected deficit irrigation scheduling practices on irrigated maize crop in a sub-catchment in south western part of Tanzania. Field experiments, in which maize (TMV1-ST) variety was planted under total irrigation, were conducted during the dry seasons of 2004 and 2005. Surface irrigation method was used and the crop was planted in basins. The seasonal water applied ranged from 400 to 750 mm. Soil moisture content from both cropped and bare soils, leaf area index, dry matter, and grain yields were measured. The dry matter yield ranged between 6,966 and 12,672 kg/ha, and grain yields obtained were between 1,625 and 4,349 kg/ha. The results showed that deficit irrigation at any crop growth stage of the maize crop led to decrease in dry matter and grain yields, seasonal evapotranspiration and deep percolation. Deficit irrigation in any one growth stage of the maize crop only seems to affect grain production and no significant effect on biomass production, but deficit irrigation that spanned across two or more growth stages affect both biomass and grain production drastically. Crop water use efficiency (WUE) and Irrigation water use efficiency (IWUE) were strongly influenced by the number of growth stages in which deficit irrigations were applied and how critical the growth stages were to moisture stress rather than the amount of irrigation water applied. While maximum WUE was obtained under full irrigation, maximum IWUE was obtained in the deficit irrigation treatment at vegetative growth stage, which suggest that IWUE may be improved upon by practicing deficit irrigation at the vegetative growth stage of the maize crop.     

Simulating soil water flow and nitrogen dynamics in a sunflower field irrigated with reclaimed wastewater

Soil water flow and nitrogen dynamics were simulated in sunflower field during and after the growing period, in Northern Greece. Soil water and nitrogen dynamics were evaluated using a one-dimensional simulation model based on the Galerkin finite element method. We examined the effects of irrigation with reclaimed wastewater and nitrogen fertilizer applications on plant growth, water and nitrogen distribution in the soil profile, water and nitrogen balance components and nitrogen leaching to groundwater. The model simulated the temporal variation of soil water content with reasonable accuracy. However, an over estimation of the measured data was observed during the simulation period. Relatively good agreement was found between the simulated and measured NH₄-N and NO₃-N concentrations over time and depth, whereas fluctuations at greater depths were relatively small. Most of the cumulative nitrate-N leaching (44.7 kg N ha⁻¹) occurred during the winter.     

Evaluating salinity distribution in soil irrigated with saline water in arid regions of northwest China

In arid and semi-arid regions, salinity is a serious and chronic problem for agriculture. A 3-year field experiment in the arid environment of Xinjiang, northwest China, was conducted to study the salinity change in soil resulting from deficit irrigation of cotton with non-saline, moderate saline and high saline water. The salinity profile distribution was also evaluated by an integrated water, salinity, and nitrogen model, ENVIRO-GRO. The simulated and observed salinity distributions matched well. Results indicated that after 3 years of cotton production, the average salinity in the 1.0-m soil profile was 336% and 547% of the original soil profile, respectively, for moderate saline and high saline water irrigation. If the practices continued, the average soil salinity (EC_e) in the 1.0-m soil profile would approach a steady level of 1.7, 10.8, and 14.7 dS m⁻¹, respectively, for the treatments receiving irrigation waters of 0.33, 3.62, and 6.71 dS m⁻¹. It was concluded that deficit irrigation of saline water in this region was not sustainable. Model simulation showed that a big flood irrigation after harvest can significantly reduce the salt accumulation in the soil profile, and that this practice was much more efficient for salinity control than applying the same extra amount of water during the growing season.     

不同沟垄覆盖下土壤水热效应对旱作马铃薯生长及产量的影响

针对宁南山区春季降雨少、低温不利于马铃薯出苗,而作物生育中后期高温胁迫限制马铃薯块茎形成导致减产等问题,于2016年设置垄覆地膜沟内覆盖塑料地膜(DM)、玉米秸秆(JG)、生物降解膜(SM)、麻纤维地膜(MM)、液态地膜(YM)及沟不覆盖(BM),以传统平作为对照(CK),研究沟垄覆盖模式对土壤温度、土壤水分、旱作马铃薯生长及块茎产量的影响.结果表明:处理DM,SM,MM和YM马铃薯生育期耕层土壤温度表现出增温效应,而处理JG和BM表现为降温效应,其中处理DM增温效果和处理JG降温效果最佳.处理YM,JG对马铃薯生长前期保水效果较好,分别较CK显著提高13.3%,27.0%,而处理JG,DM对生育中后期的保墒效果较佳,分别较CK显著提高22.4%,13.2%.处理JG可显著促进马铃薯生长,其增产效果最为显著,DM次之,分别较CK增产47.8%,44.8%,其他处理较CK差异不具有统计学意义.可见,在宁南山区实施垄覆地膜沟覆秸秆模式可调控土壤水热环境,对旱作马铃薯生长及增产效果最佳.     

水肥对土壤盐分影响及增产效应

为了内蒙古河套灌区盐渍化土壤的肥料高效利用,采用田间试验的方法,将不同种类肥料和灌溉定额进行组合,研究其对土壤盐分的动态影响及增产效应.结果表明:小麦收获后,除尿素处理外,有机肥、控释肥和缓释肥处理在常规及节水灌溉条件下耕层和剖面土壤电导率(EC)均值较试验初都有不同程度的降低.有机肥处理在常规灌水条件下(灌水定额为1 005 m³/hm²),控盐效果略显优势;缓释、控释肥在节水灌溉条件下(灌水定额为750 m³/hm²),控盐效果更明显,剖面土壤EC均值较试验前分别下降16.4%,14.3%;尿素处理在常规灌水条件下,耕层及剖面土壤EC均值较播前分别增加3.6%,2.7%,积盐程度略高于节水处理.4种肥料处理的小麦产量较对照处理增产效果显著;缓释肥处理在常规及节水灌溉条件下均表现出显著的增产优势.综合考虑节水、增产、土壤脱盐等效应,获得优化灌水施肥模式为:缓释肥配二铵基施,生育期内不进行追肥,缓释肥为800.4 kg/hm²,二铵为350.6 kg/hm²,灌水定额为750 m³/hm²,产量为8 374.5 kg/hm², 较当地农民习惯灌水施肥处理可增产2.14%、节水25%,作物耕层EC值和剖面土壤EC均值较播前分别下降18.6%,16.4%.     

The soil water balance of rainfed and irrigated oats,Italian rye grass and rye using the CropSyst model

Crop growth models have been used in simulating the soil water balance for purposes of irrigation management and yield predictions. The application of CropSyst, a cropping systems simulation model, was evaluated for Cedara, South Africa. Simulations included soil water balance of fallow land and rainfed and irrigated winter crops [oats (Avena sativa), Italian ryegrass (Lolium multiflorum) and rye (Secale cereale)]; and irrigation scheduling of the winter crops. Soil, plant, weather and management inputs were used for the soil water balance simulations. Model crop parameters were used from past experiments or obtained from model documentation, with a slight modification to account for varietal differences. The fallow land soil water simulations were more accurate for dry than for wet soil. For all three winter crops, the model consistently over-estimated the soil water content in the upper layers, with a good agreement for the deeper layers until a large precipitation event occurred to which the model responded more slowly than that observed. Simulations using model-scheduled irrigation based on 0.4 and 0.6 maximum allowable depletion criteria indicated that the observed applied irrigation in the field was more than that required. Soil water depletion and accumulated transpiration simulations were similar in both the observed and model-scheduled irrigations, but total soil evaporation and percolation were greater in the case of the observed than the model-scheduled irrigations. Irrigation scheduling using crop growth models may assist in avoiding over- or under-application of irrigation applications by ensuring efficient utilization of rain and irrigation.     

Wheat root growth,grain yield and water uptake as influenced by soil water regime and depth of nitrogen placement in a loamy sand soil

Root growth, grain yield and water uptake by wheat in relation to soil water regime and depth of nitrogen (N) placement were studied in metallic cylinders filled with loamy sand soil. Root-length and -weight densities were greater under irrigated than under unirrigated conditions and they increased with deep placement as compared to surface mixing of fertilizer N. The differences were relatively larger in the deeper than in the upper soil layers and increased during later stages of plant growth. Under non-irrigated conditions, constant water table at 100 cm depth produced maximum root growth in the top 30 cm soil. Water uptake rate increased with increase in root density depending on root age and soil water status. Dry matter accumulation at different stages of plant growth and grain yield varied significantly with moisture regime and depth of N placement. Deep placement of fertilizer N under shallow water table and non-irrigated conditions caused greater root growth, better water utilization and a higher production.     

Estimating yield of sorghum using root zone water balance model and spectral characteristics of crop in a dryland Alfisol

This study investigated the relationship between sorghum grain yield for a range of soil depths, with the seasonal crop water stress index based on relative evapotranspiration deficits and spectral vegetation indices. A root zone water balance model was used to evaluate seasonal soil water fluctuations and actual evapotranspiration within a toposequence; soil depth varied between 30 and 75 cm and available water capacity ranged from 6.9 to 12.6% (v/v, %). An empirical model was used to determine root growth. Runoff was estimated from rainfall data using the curve number techniques of the Soil Conservation Services, combined with a soil water-accounting procedure. The high r² values between modeled and observed values of soil water in the root zone (r² > 0.70, significant at P < 0.001) and runoff (r² = 0.95, significant at P < 0.001) indicated good agreement between the model output and observed values. Canopy reflectance was measured during the entire crop growth period and the following spectral indices were calculated: simple ratio, normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI), green NDVI, perpendicular vegetation index, soil adjusted vegetation index (SAVI) and modified SAVI (MSAVI). All the vegetation indices, except for the perpendicular vegetation index, measured from booting to anthesis stage, were positively correlated with leaf area index (LAI) and yield. The correlation coefficient for spectral indices with dry biomass was relatively less than for LAI and yield. Modified SAVI recorded from booting to milk-grain stage gave the highest average correlation coefficient with grain yield. Additive and multiplicative forms of water-production functions, as well as water stress index calculated from water budget model, were used to predict crop yield. A multiple regression was carried out with yield, for the years 2001–2003, as the dependent variable and MSAVI, from the booting to the milk-grain stage of crop and relative yield values, calculated using both additive and multiplicative water production functions as well as water stress index, as the independent variables. The multiplicative model and MSAVI, recorded during the heading stage of crop growth, gave the highest coefficient of determination (r² = 0.682, significant at P < 0.001). The multiple regression equation was tested for yield data recorded during 2004; the deviation between observed and estimated yields varied from −6.2 to 9.4%. The water budget model, along with spectral vegetation indices, gave satisfactory estimates of sorghum grain yields and appears to be a useful tool to estimate yield as a function of soil depth and available water.     

Population dynamics and crop yield effects of nematodes and white mold in peanuts,cotton and velvet beans

Dynamic population equations for the root-knot nematode (Meloidogyne arenaria), Southern blight (`white mold') fungus (Sclerotium rolfsii), and microbivorous nematodes in peanuts, cotton, and the Alabama velvet bean were statistically estimated with replicated experimental data from Headland, AL, USA. The level of microbivorous nematodes the previous crop year was found to suppress the root-knot nematode and white mold in peanuts the following crop year in monoculture peanut production and in peanuts after velvet beans. Statistical results showed that both the root-knot nematode and white mold had a negative effect on peanut yield, while microbivorous nematodes had a positive effect on peanut and cotton yields. Scientific knowledge of these organisms does not fully explain the results, but the statistical results strongly suggest that these relationships exist. On the basis of statistical results for peanuts, each white mold occurrence (in a 60-ft row) cost $21.41, each root-knot nematode (in 100-cm³ soil sample) cost $0.41, and each microbivorous nematode (in 100-cm³ soil sample) had a benefit of $0.11. In cotton production, microbivorous nematodes had a benefit of $0.13.