Beta-arrestin 2 regulates zebrafish development through the hedgehog signaling pathway

beta-arrestins are multifunctional proteins that act as scaffolds and transducers of intracellular signals from heptahelical transmembrane-spanning receptors (7TMR). Hedgehog (Hh) signaling, which uses the putative 7TMR, Smoothened, is established as a fundamental pathway in development, and unregulated Hh signaling is associated with certain malignancies. Here, we show that the functional knockdown of beta-arrestin 2 in zebrafish embryos recapitulates the many phenotypes of Hh pathway mutants. Expression of wild-type beta-arrestin 2, or constitutive activation of the Hh pathway downstream of Smoothened, rescues the phenotypes caused by beta-arrestin 2 deficiency. These results suggest that a functional interaction between beta-arrestin 2 and Smoothened may be critical to regulate Hh signaling in zebrafish development.     

Deconstructing the hedgehog pathway in development and disease

The Hedgehog (Hh) family of secreted signaling proteins is a master regulator of cell fate determination in metazoans, contributing to both pattern formation during embryonic development and postembryonic tissue homeostasis. In a universally used mode of action, graded distribution of Hh protein induces differential cell fate in a dose-dependent manner in cells that receive Hh. Though much of this pathway has been elucidated from genetically based studies in model organisms, such as Drosophila and mice, the importance of Hh-mediated signaling in humans is clearly evident from malformations and a broad range of cancers that arise when the pathway is corrupted.     

Medulloblastoma growth inhibition by hedgehog pathway blockade

Constitutive Hedgehog (Hh) pathway activity is associated with initiation of neoplasia, but its role in the continued growth of established tumors is unclear. Here, we investigate the therapeutic efficacy of the Hh pathway antagonist cyclopamine in preclinical models of medulloblastoma, the most common malignant brain tumor in children. Cyclopamine treatment of murine medulloblastoma cells blocked proliferation in vitro and induced changes in gene expression consistent with initiation of neuronal differentiation and loss of neuronal stem cell-like character. This compound also caused regression of murine tumor allografts in vivo and induced rapid death of cells from freshly resected human medulloblastomas, but not from other brain tumors, thus establishing a specific role for Hh pathway activity in medulloblastoma growth.     

Identification of Hedgehog pathway components by RNAi in Drosophila cultured cells

Classical genetic screens can be limited by the selectivity of mutational targeting, the complexities of anatomically based phenotypic analysis, or difficulties in subsequent gene identification. Focusing on signaling response to the secreted morphogen Hedgehog (Hh), we used RNA interference (RNAi) and a quantitative cultured cell assay to systematically screen functional roles of all kinases and phosphatases, and subsequently 43% of predicted Drosophila genes. Two gene products reported to function in Wingless (Wg) signaling were identified as Hh pathway components: a cell surface protein (Dally-like protein) required for Hh signal reception, and casein kinase 1alpha, a candidate tumor suppressor that regulates basal activities of both Hh and Wg pathways. This type of cultured cell-based functional genomics approach may be useful in the systematic analysis of other biological processes.     

Skinny hedgehog, an acyltransferase required for palmitoylation and activity of the hedgehog signal

One of the most dominant influences in the patterning of multicellular embryos is exerted by the Hedgehog (Hh) family of secreted signaling proteins. Here, we identify a segment polarity gene in Drosophila melanogaster, skinny hedgehog (ski), and show that its product is required in Hh-expressing cells for production of appropriate signaling activity in embryos and in the imaginal precursors of adult tissues. The ski gene encodes an apparent acyltransferase, and we provide genetic and biochemical evidence that Hh proteins from ski mutant cells retain carboxyl-terminal cholesterol modification but lack amino-terminal palmitate modification. Our results suggest that ski encodes an enzyme that acts within the secretory pathway to catalyze amino-terminal palmitoylation of Hh, and further demonstrate that this lipid modification is required for the embryonic and larval patterning activities of the Hh signal.     

Astrocytic purinergic signaling coordinates synaptic networks

To investigate the role of astrocytes in regulating synaptic transmission, we generated inducible transgenic mice that express a dominant-negative SNARE domain selectively in astrocytes to block the release of transmitters from these glial cells. By releasing adenosine triphosphate, which accumulates as adenosine, astrocytes tonically suppressed synaptic transmission, thereby enhancing the dynamic range for long-term potentiation and mediated activity-dependent, heterosynaptic depression. These results indicate that astrocytes are intricately linked in the regulation of synaptic strength and plasticity and provide a pathway for synaptic cross-talk.     

稻穗颖花开花时间对胚乳发育的影响及其生理机制

武育粳3号（粳稻）、扬稻4号（籼稻）、汕优63（籼型杂交稻）和PC311/早献党18（籼粳杂交稻）一个穗上颖花开花经历的时间分别为5d、7d、7d和8d。胚乳细胞数（ECs）以第2天开花的籽粒最多,其次为第1天开花的籽粒,以后随开花时间的推迟,ECs减少。同一品种（组合）不同开花时间籽粒的单个胚乳细胞重差异不大。胚乳重和谷粒充实率与ECs呈极显著正相关,与单个胚乳细胞的重量相关不显著。开花越早的籽粒（第1天开花的籽粒除外）,胚乳细胞的起始增殖势（R#+0）、最大增殖速率[V#-（max）]和平均增殖速率（V*+-）越大,到达最大增殖速率的时间越短。R#+0、V#-（max）、V*+-和ECs与灌浆初期的籽粒生理活性（ATP酶活性、亚精胺和精胺含量）密切相关。孕穗期去1/2植株或始穗期喷施6-BA[6-（苄基）腺嘌呤],灌浆初期的籽粒生理活性、R#+0、V#-（max）、V*+-、ECs、胚乳重和谷粒充实率明显增加,孕穗期去1/2叶后,结果则相反。表明由于ECs的不同,造成了穗上籽粒间粒重的差异,而迟开花籽粒的生理活性低是其胚乳发育不良的重要原因。     

Astrocytes block axonal regeneration in mammals by activating the physiological stop pathway

Regenerating sensory axons in the dorsal roots of adult mammals are stopped at the junction between the root and spinal cord by reactive astrocytes. Do these cells stop axonal elongation by activating the physiological mechanisms that normally operate to stop axons during development, or do they physically obstruct the elongating axons? In order to distinguish these possibilities, the cytology of the axon tips of regenerating axons that were stopped by astrocytes was compared with the axon tips that were physically obstructed at a cul-de-sac produced by ligating a peripheral nerve. The terminals of the physically obstructed axon tips were distended with neurofilaments and other axonally transported structures that had accumulated when the axons stopped elongating. By contrast, neurofilaments did not accumulate in the tips of regenerating axons that were stopped by spinal cord astrocytes at the dorsal root transitional zone. These axo-glial terminals resembled the terminals that axons make on target neurons during normal development. On the basis of these observations, astrocytes appear to stop axons from regenerating in the mammalian spinal cord by activating the physiological stop pathway that is built into the axon and that normally operates when axons form stable terminals on target cells.     

Laser scribing of high-performance and flexible graphene-based electrochemical capacitors

Although electrochemical capacitors (ECs), also known as supercapacitors or ultracapacitors, charge and discharge faster than batteries, they are still limited by low energy densities and slow rate capabilities. We used a standard LightScribe DVD optical drive to do the direct laser reduction of graphite oxide films to graphene. The produced films are mechanically robust, show high electrical conductivity (1738 siemens per meter) and specific surface area (1520 square meters per gram), and can thus be used directly as EC electrodes without the need for binders or current collectors, as is the case for conventional ECs. Devices made with these electrodes exhibit ultrahigh energy density values in different electrolytes while maintaining the high power density and excellent cycle stability of ECs. Moreover, these ECs maintain excellent electrochemical attributes under high mechanical stress and thus hold promise for high-power, flexible electronics.     

Specific tropism of HIV-1 for microglial cells in primary human brain cultures

Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) frequently causes neurological dysfunction and is abundantly expressed in the central nervous system (CNS) of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) patients with HIV encephalitis or myelopathy. The virus is found mostly in cells of the monocyte-macrophage lineage within the CNS, but the possibility of infection of other glial cells has been raised. Therefore, the effects of different HIV-1 and HIV-2 strains were studied in primary cultures of adult human brain containing microglial cells, the resident CNS macrophages, and astrocytes. These cultures could be productively infected with macrophage-adapted HIV-1 isolates but not with T lymphocyte-adapted HIV-1 isolates or two HIV-2 isolates. As determined with a triple-label procedure, primary astrocytes did not express HIV gag antigens and remained normal throughout the 3-week course of infection. In contrast, virus replicated in neighboring microglial cells, often leading to their cell fusion and death. The death of microglial cells, which normally serve immune functions in the CNS, may be a key factor in the pathogenesis of AIDS encephalitis or myelopathy.     

百子莲胚性愈伤组织玻璃化法超低温保存体系建立及遗传稳定性分析

采用单因素随机区组试验及多因素、多水平正交试验方案建立了百子莲胚性愈伤组织(embryogenic callus,ECs)玻璃化法超低温保存体系。将由花梗诱导的胚性愈伤组织接种至预培养基(MS+0.5mol/L蔗糖+1%琼脂)上,在4℃下预培养2d后,在室温下加入装载液(MS+0.4mol/L蔗糖+2mol/L丙三醇+10mmol/L KNO3)处理60min;利用改良后的PVS 2玻璃化溶液(MS+0.4mol/L蔗糖+30%丙三醇+15%乙二醇+15%DMSO)在0℃下处理40min,将含有ECs的冻存管投入液氮中冻存1h;在40℃水浴中快速解冻90s;用洗涤液(MS+1.2mol/L蔗糖+10mmol/L KNO3)处理30min,每10min换1次新鲜的洗涤液;洗涤后,接种到胚性愈伤组织增殖培养基上恢复培养24h后,相对成活率分别达56.9%(TTC法)和43.3%(Evans blue法)。恢复培养55d的百子莲胚性愈伤组织经过AFLP多态性检测后未发现基因组变异,证明该方法可用于百子莲种质资源的超低温保存。     

意大利蜜蜂响应东方蜜蜂微孢子虫胁迫的免疫应答

【目的】通过对意大利蜜蜂（Apis mellifera ligustica,简称意蜂）工蜂中肠响应东方蜜蜂微孢子虫（Nosema ceranae）胁迫的差异表达基因（differentially expressed gene,DEG）及免疫通路进行深入细致的分析,揭示宿主的细胞和体液免疫应答,为关键免疫应答基因的筛选及功能研究打下基础。【方法】基于前期获得的正常及东方蜜蜂微孢子虫胁迫的意蜂7日龄和10日龄工蜂中肠（Am7CK、Am7T、Am10CK、Am10T）转录组数据,按照FDR≤1,P≤0.05和|log₂ fold change|≥1的标准筛选出各组的DEG,利用相关生物信息学软件对DEG进行Pearson相关性分析、Venn分析、GO分类和KEGG代谢通路富集分析,进而对免疫通路富集基因进行统计和分析,利用实时荧光定量PCR（real-time quantitative PCR,RT-qPCR）验证转录组数据的可靠性。【结果】 差异分析结果显示,Am7CK vs Am7T比较组包含472个上调基因和385个下调基因;Am10CK vs Am10T比较组包含611个上调基因和360个下调基因。Venn分析结果显示,两个比较组特有的DEG分别为739和853个,共有的DEG为118个。GO分类结果显示,Am7CK vs Am7T比较组中上调和下调基因分别涉及23和29个功能条目,其中富集上调基因数最多的前5位分别为结合、催化活性、代谢进程、细胞进程和单组织进程;富集下调基因数最多的前5位分别为代谢进程、单组织进程、催化活性、细胞进程和结合。Am10CK vs Am10T比较组中上调和下调基因分别涉及36和26个功能条目,其中富集上调基因数最多的前5位分别为单组织进程、结合、细胞进程、催化活性和代谢活性;富集下调基因数最多的前5位分别为结合、细胞进程、催化活性、代谢进程和单组织进程。KEGG代谢通路富集分析结果显示,Am7CK vs Am7T比较组中上调和下调基因分别富集在38和33条代谢通路,富集上调基因数最多的前5条分别为胆汁分泌、内质网蛋白加工、泛素介导的蛋白水解、PI3K-Akt信号通路和神经营养因子信号通路;富集下调基因数最多的前5条分别为胞质DNA传感通路、嘌呤代谢、嘧啶代谢、RNA聚合酶和核糖体;涉及泛素介导的蛋白水解等3条细胞免疫通路,以及PI3K-Akt信号通路等7条体液免疫通路。Am10CK vs Am10T比较组中上调和下调基因分别富集在54和43条代谢通路,富集上调基因数最多的前5条分别为Hippo信号通路、药物代谢-细胞色素P450、P450对外源物质的代谢、泛素介导的蛋白水解和鞘脂类代谢;富集下调基因数最多的前5条分别为mRNA监测、鞘脂类信号通路、果糖和甘露糖代谢、半乳糖代谢和鞘脂类代谢;涉及泛素介导的蛋白水解等7条细胞免疫通路,以及NF-κB信号通路等2条体液免疫通路。RT-qPCR验证结果显示6个随机挑选的DEG的表达量变化趋势与测序结果一致,证实了本研究中测序数据的可靠性。进一步分析发现意蜂7日龄和10日龄工蜂中肠的NF-κB信号通路均被东方蜜蜂微孢子虫激活,随即启动了3种抗菌肽apidaecin、defensin-1和hymenoptaecin的合成,体现了它们在宿主抵御东方蜜蜂微孢子虫入侵中的重要性。【结论】在转录组水平解析了意蜂工蜂中肠对东方蜜蜂微孢子虫的免疫应答,揭示宿主在胁迫前期同时作出细胞和体液免疫应答,前者可能在抵御病原入侵方面发挥主要作用;宿主的细胞免疫在胁迫后期持续增强,但体液免疫较大程度地减弱;泛素介导的蛋白水解通路及富集DEG,NF-κB信号通路及富集DEG,以及抗菌肽编码基因apidaecin、defensin-1和hymenoptaecin可能在意蜂工蜂对东方蜜蜂微孢子虫的免疫应答中起到关键作用。     

意大利蜜蜂Ci蛋白的生物信息学分析

【目的】掌握意大利蜜蜂转录因子(Ci)的生物信息学并阐述其功能,为揭示Ci蛋白在意大利蜜蜂Hh信号通路中的功能和作用打下基础。【方法】从NCBI获取意大利蜜蜂Ci蛋白氨基酸序列,分别使用ProtParam预测其理化性质、SignalP-5.0预测信号肽、TMHMM-2.0预测跨膜结构,通过NetOGlyc 3.0、NetNGlyc 1.0、NetPhos 3.1、SUMOplot等进行O-糖基化位点、N-糖基化位点、磷酸化位点及苏木化位点预测,采用GOR4、SWISS-MODEL、CD-Search等预测意大利蜜蜂Ci蛋白高级结构,在多重序列比对分析的基础上利用MEGA 11.0构建系统发育进化树,并通过String数据库预测相互作用蛋白。【结果】意大利蜜蜂Ci蛋白存在2个亚型,分别是XP_624136.4和XP_006558245.2。其中,XP_624136.4亚型的开放阅读(ORF)为4338 bp,编码1445个氨基酸残基,编码蛋白分子量为15.50 kD,理论等电点(pI)为8.39;XP_006558245.2亚型的ORF为3873 bp,编码1290个氨基酸残基,编码蛋白分子量13.99 kD,pI为8.48。2个亚型均属于不稳定的两性蛋白,无信号肽,无跨膜结构,主要定位于在细胞核,少数分布在囊细胞质,XP_006558245.2亚型在线粒体中也有少量分布。XP_624136.4亚型存在2个O-糖基化位点、9个N-糖基化位点、174个磷酸化位点及5个苏木素化位点;XP_006558245.2亚型存在26个O-糖基化位点、8个N-糖基化位点、156个磷酸化位点及5个苏木素化位点。意大利蜜蜂Ci蛋白二级结构主要有α-螺旋、延伸链和无规则卷曲,其三级结构中无规则卷曲、延伸链分布较多,α-螺旋分布较少;2个亚型均具有5个典型的C₂H₂型锌指蛋白结构域,且从昆虫到哺乳动物Ci蛋白序列高度保守。意大利蜜蜂Ci蛋白与Kinesin-B、Ptc、Poz、Su(fu)、Slmb、Smo、Csnk1a1、Cul-3和Fu等驱动蛋白样蛋白形成相互作用网络。【结论】意大利蜜蜂Ci蛋白属于不稳定的两性蛋白,主要定位于细胞核中,少量分布在囊细胞质或线粒体中,具有5个典型的C₂H₂型锌指蛋白结构域,蛋白序列高度保守,在意大利蜜蜂Hh信号通路中主要承担转录功能,对意大利蜜蜂的生长发育、跨膜运输、突触传递、信号转导及蛋白生成等起重要调控作用。     

Astrocytes potentiate transmitter release at single hippocampal synapses

Astrocytes play active roles in brain physiology. They respond to neurotransmitters and modulate neuronal excitability and synaptic function. However, the influence of astrocytes on synaptic transmission and plasticity at the single synapse level is unknown. Ca(2+) elevation in astrocytes transiently increased the probability of transmitter release at hippocampal area CA3-CA1 synapses, without affecting the amplitude of synaptic events. This form of short-term plasticity was due to the release of glutamate from astrocytes, a process that depended on Ca(2+) and soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor attachment protein receptor (SNARE) protein and that activated metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs). The transient potentiation of transmitter release became persistent when the astrocytic signal was temporally coincident with postsynaptic depolarization. This persistent plasticity was mGluR-mediated but N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor-independent. These results indicate that astrocytes are actively involved in the transfer and storage of synaptic information.     

Two new IncRNAs regulate the key immune factor NOD1 and TRAF5 in chicken lymphocyte

Reticuloendotheliosis virus (REV) causes the atrophy of immune organs and immuno-suppression in chickens, but the underlying molecular mechanism of the immune response after infection by REV is not well understood. Presently, the RNA-seq was used to analyze the regulation of immune response to REV in chicken lymphocytes from peripheral blood. Overall, 134 differentially expressed long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) between cells with REV infection or without in vitro were screened. Based on the differentially expressed protein-coding genes, the nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain (NOD)-like receptor pathway related to immune regulation was enriched. Two lncRNAs (L11530 and L09863) were predicted to target the NOD1 and tumor necrosis factor receptor-associated factor 5 (TRAF5) gene, respectively, which are involved in the NOD-like receptor pathway with cis-regulation way. The in vitro results revealed the significantly up-regulated (P<0.01) levels of lncRNA-L11530 and its target gene, NOD1, and the significantly down-regulated (P<0.05) levels of lncRNA-L09863 and its target gene, TRAF5, in lymphocytes after REV infection. These changes also occurred in vivo in blood lymphocytes of chickens infected with REV. Further, L09863 and L11530 were respectively interfered, the expression levels of their target genes NOD1 or TRAF5 were significantly down-regulated, accompanied by the change of IL-8 and IL-18 secretions in lymphocytes. The NOD-like receptor pathway appears to be important in the immune response to REV, LncRNA-11530 and IncRNA-09863 might involve in the immune regulation on REV infection by targeting NOD1 or TRAF5 in blood lymphocytes of chickens. Our findings reveal a new regulation of lncRNAs (L11530 and L09863) on immunity in chicken peripheral blood lymphocytes for REV infection by changing the expression of the target genes via the NOD-like receptor pathway.