Comparative susceptibility of chickens and turkeys to avian influenza A H7N2 virus infection and protective efficacy of a commercial avian influenza H7N2 virus vaccine

During the spring of 2002, a low pathogenic avian influenza (LPAI) A (H7N2) virus caused a major outbreak among commercial poultry in Virginia and adjacent states. The virus primarily affected turkey flocks, causing respiratory distress and decreased egg production. Experimentally, turkeys were more susceptible than chickens to H7N2 virus infection, with 50% bird infectious dose titers equal to 10(0.8) and 10(2.8-3.2), respectively. Comparison of virus shedding from the cloaca and oropharynx demonstrated that recent H7N2 virus isolates were readily isolated from the upper respiratory tract but rarely from the gastrointestinal tract. The outbreak of H7N2 virus raised concerns regarding the availability of vaccines that could be used for the prevention and control of this virus in poultry. We sought to determine if an existing commercial avian influenza (AI) vaccine prepared from a 1997 seed stock virus could provide protection against a 2002 LPAI H7N2 virus isolated from a turkey (A/turkey/Virginia/158512/02 [TV/02]) in Virginia that was from the same lineage as the vaccine virus. The inactivated AI vaccine, prepared from A/chicken/ Pennsylvania/21342/97 (CP/97) virus, significantly reduced viral shedding from vaccinated turkeys in comparison with sham controls but did not prevent infection. The protective effect of vaccination correlated with the level of virus-specific antibody because a second dose of vaccine increased antiviral serum immunoglobulin G and hemagglutination inhibition (HI) reactivity titers in two different turkey age groups. Serum from CP/97-vaccinated turkeys reacted equally well to CP/97 and TV/02 antigens by HI and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. These results demonstrate the potential benefit of using an antigenically related 1997 H7N2 virus as a vaccine candidate for protection in poultry against a H7N2 virus isolate from 2002.     

H7N2禽流感病毒分离株血凝素蛋白全基因的序列分析

为进一步分析H7N2禽流感病毒（AIV）分离株血凝素（HA）基因的特性,参照已发表序列设计了1对引物,采用RT-PCR获得了1条约1.7 kb的DNA片段,测序后进行了同源性比较、HA基因系统发育进化树分析和氨基酸编码分析.结果表明,所测的2个分离株的HA基因全长1 664 bp,编码除信号肽以外的HA蛋白的全部544个氨基酸,其中包括HA1的323个氨基酸,HA2的221个氨基酸.2个分离株HA基因核苷酸序列的同源性为99.4%;与GenBank中AIV标准株A/Afri.Star./Eng-Q/983/79（H7N1）的同源性最高,分别为99.4%和99.0%;与美国A/Chicken/NewYork/13142-5/94（H7N2）株同源性很低（仅65.0%）,而与以色列、意大利H7N2 AIV的同源性较高（为96%～97%）;2个分离株在HA基因进化树中均处于H7亚型AIV的欧亚群系分支内.推导氨基酸的序列分析表明,其HA蛋白裂解位点的氨基酸序列为-GR-GLF-,仅包含1个碱性氨基酸（R-）残基,符合低致病力AIV的基因特征.     

Transmission characteristics of low pathogenic avian influenza virus of H7N7 and H5N7 subtypes in layer chickens

Low pathogenic avian influenza virus (LPAIv) infections of H5 and H7 subtypes in poultry are notifiable to the OIE, hence surveillance programmes are implemented. The rate at which LPAIv strains spread within a flock determines the prevalence of infected birds and the time it takes to reach that prevalence and, consequently, optimal sample size and sampling frequency. The aim of this study was to investigate the transmission characteristics of an H7N7 and an H5N7 LPAIv in layer chickens. Two transmission experiments were performed, which consisted of 30 (first experiment) and 20 (second experiment) pairs of conventional layers, respectively. At the start of the experiments, one chicken per pair was inoculated with LPAIv and the other chicken was contact-exposed. Occurrence of infection was monitored by regularly collecting tracheal and cloacal swab samples, which were examined for the presence of virus RNA by RT-PCR. The results of the test were used to estimate the transmission rate parameter (β), the infectious period (T) and the basic reproduction ratio (R(0)). In addition, egg production and virus shedding patterns were quantified. For the H7N7 virus, the β, T and R(0) estimates were 0.10 (95% confidence interval (CI): 0.04-0.18) day(-1), 7.1 (95% CI: 6.5-7.8) days and 0.7 (95% CI: 0.0-1.7), respectively. With the H5N7 virus, only a few inoculated chickens (5 out of 20) became infected and no transmission was observed. This study shows that transmission characteristics of LPAIv strains may vary considerably, which has to be taken into account when designing surveillance programmes.     

Pathogenicity of an avian influenza virus serotype H9N2 in chickens

A low pathogenic avian influenza virus (AIV) serotype H9N2 affected many commercial flocks in the Middle East in late 1990s and early 2000s. Due to the varying pathogenicity ofAIV H9N2 reported in previous studies, this study was carried out to determine the pathogenicity of a Jordanian isolate of H9N2 in broiler and specific-pathogen-free (SPF) chickens. Mild tracheal rales were observed in the broilers but not in the SPF birds starting 3 days postinfection (DPI) and until the end of the experiment at 16 DPI. Infected chickens had gross and histologic changes limited to the respiratory system (sinuses, trachea, lungs, and air sacs) characterized by congestion and lymphoplasmacytic inflammation. However, the lesions in the broiler chickens were more severe than those in the SPF chicks. Furthermore, the virus caused significant (P = 0.004) reduction (230 g) in average body weight of the infected broiler group compared with the uninfected broiler group. Both broiler and SPF-infected groups seroconverted, and they had a geometric mean titer of 2(8.2) and 2(9.3), respectively, on the hemagglutination inhibition test at 16 DPI. Cloacal virus shedding was not detected by 9 DPI and 15 DPI in broiler and SPF-infected groups, respectively. This study demonstrated the pathogenic nature of the local Jordanian H9N2 isolate and the variation from what it has been reported in other countries of the region. Regional effort should be directed to start an eradication program of this disease because of its pathogenicity for chickens, wide distribution, and possible interference with surveillance for H5N1 serotype.     

Coexpression of avian influenza virus H5 and N1 by recombinant Newcastle disease virus and the impact on immune response in chickens

To analyze the contribution of neuraminidase (NA) toward protection against avian influenza virus (AIV) infection, three different recombinant Newcastle disease viruses (NDVs) expressing hemagglutinin (HA) or NA, or both, of highly pathogenic avian influenza virus (HPAIV) were generated. The lentogenic NDV Clone 30 was used as backbone for the insertion of HA of HPAIV strain A/chicken/Vietnam/P41/05 (H5N1) and NA of HPAIV strain A/duck/Vietnam/TG24-01/05 (H5N1). The HA was inserted between the genes encoding NDV phosphoprotein (P) and matrixprotein (M), and the NA was inserted between the fusion (F) and hemagglutinin-neuraminidase protein (HN) genes, resulting in NDVH5VmPMN1FHN. Two additional recombinants were constructed carrying the HA gene between the NDV P and M genes (NDVH5VmPM) or the NA between F and HN (NDVN1FHN). All recombinants replicated well and stably expressed the HA gene, the NA gene, or both. Chickens immunized with NDVH5VmPMN1FHN or NDVH5VmPM were protected against two different HPAIV H5N1 and also against HPAIV H5N2. In contrast, immunization of chickens with NDVN1FHN induced NDV- and AIV N1-specific antibodies but did not protect the animals against a lethal dose of HPAIV H5N1. Furthermore, expression of AIV N1, in addition to AIV H5 by NDV, did not increase protection against HPAIV H5N1.     

H9N2亚型鸡源禽流感病毒分离与鉴定

禽流感 (AI)又名真性鸡瘟或欧洲鸡瘟 ,是由正粘病毒科 A型流感病毒引起的一种传染病 ,是国际兽医局规定的 A类烈性传染病。鸡、火鸡、鸭和鹌鹑等家禽及其他野禽均可感染。我们从新乡市某蛋鸡场分离鉴定 1株低致病力的 H9N2亚型的禽流感病毒毒株 ,现报告如下。1　材料与方法1.1　材料　病料来自河南职业技术师范学院禽病研究所接诊检验的病、死鸡。禽流感 A型琼扩抗原、标准阳性血清以及抗 HA、NA分型血清购自中国农科院哈尔滨兽医研究所 ;抗新城疫 (ND)血清和抗减蛋综合征 (EDS- 76 )血清由本院禽病研究所提供。 SPF鸡胚和雏鸡购自…     

Different routes of inoculation impact infectivity and pathogenesis of H5N1 high pathogenicity avian influenza virus infection in chickens and domestic ducks

The H5N1 type A influenza viruses classified as Qinghai-like virus (clade 2.2) are a unique lineage of type A influenza viruses with the capacity to produce significant disease and mortality in gallinaceous and anseriform birds, including domestic and wild ducks. The objective of this study was to determine the susceptibility and pathogenesis of chickens and domestic ducks to A/Whooper Swan/Mongolia/224/05 (H5N1) high pathogenicity avian influenza (HPAI) virus when administered through respiratory or alimentary routes of exposure. The chickens and ducks were more susceptible to the H5N1 HPAI virus, as evidenced by low infectious and lethal viral doses, when exposed by intranasal as compared to alimentary routes of inoculation (intragastric or oral-fed infected chicken meat). In the alimentary exposure pathogenesis study, pathologic changes included hemorrhage, necrosis, and inflammation in association with virus detection. These changes were generally observed in most of the visceral organs of chickens, between 2 and 4 days postinoculation (DPI), and are similar to lesions and virus localization seen in birds in natural cases or in experimental studies using the intranasal route. Alimentary exposure to the virus caused systemic infection in the ducks, characterized by moderate lymphocytic encephalitis, necrotized hepatitis, and pancreatitis with a corresponding demonstration of virus within the lesions. In both chickens and ducks with alimentary exposure, lesions, virus, or both were first demonstrated in the upper alimentary tract on 1 DPI, suggesting that the alimentary tract was the initial site affected upon consumption of infected meat or on gavage of virus in liquid medium. However, as demonstrated in the infectivity study in chickens, alimentary infection required higher exposure doses to produce infection as compared to intranasal exposure in chickens. These data suggest that upper respiratory exposure to H5N1 HPAI virus in birds is more likely to result in virus infection and transmission than will consumption of infected meat, unless the latter contains high doses of virus, as found in cannibalized infected carcasses.     

Experimental infection of chickens, ducks and quails with the highly pathogenic H5N1 avian influenza virus

Highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses (HPAIV) of the H5N1 subtype have spread since 2003 in poultry and wild birds in Asia, Europe and Africa. In Korea, the highly pathogenic H5N1 avian influenza outbreaks took place in 2003/2004, 2006/2007 and 2008. As the 2006/2007 isolates differ phylogenetically from the 2003/2004 isolates, we assessed the clinical responses of chickens, ducks and quails to intranasal inoculation of the 2006/2007 index case virus, A/chicken/Korea/IS/06. All the chickens and quails died on 3 days and 3-6 days post-inoculation (DPI), respectively, whilst the ducks only showed signs of mild depression. The uninoculated chickens and quails placed soon after with the inoculated flock died on 5.3 and 7.5 DPI, respectively. Both oropharyngeal and cloacal swabs were taken for all three species during various time intervals after inoculation. It was found that oropharyngeal swabs showed higher viral titers than in cloacal swabs applicable to all three avian species. The chickens and quails shed the virus until they died (up to 3 to 6 days after inoculation, respectively) whilst the ducks shed the virus on 2-4 DPI. The postmortem tissues collected from the chickens and quails on day 3 and days 4-5 and from clinically normal ducks that were euthanized on day 4 contained the virus. However, the ducks had significantly lower viral titers than the chickens or quails. Thus, the three avian species varied significantly in their clinical signs, mortality, tissue virus titers, and duration of virus shedding. Our observations suggest that duck and quail farms should be monitored particularly closely for the presence of HPAIV so that further virus transmission to other avian or mammalian hosts can be prevented.     

H9N2亚型禽流感病毒感染TC-1细胞诱导的免疫反应

为了更好地了解宿主对禽流感病毒(AIV)感染后的免疫反应,本试验以TC-1细胞为模型,感染H9N2亚型AIV。通过荧光定量PCR(qRT-PCR)和酶联免疫吸附试验(ELISA)方法检测了3种模式识别受体(TLR-3、RIG-I和MDA-5)和5种炎性细胞因子(IL-6、RANTES、IP-10、TNF-α和IFN-β)。结果显示:3种模式识别受体中MDA-5上调最为明显,5种炎性因子中RANTES和IP-10上调最为明显;而IL-6、TNF-α和IFN-β上调相对较平缓。本研究结果表明:在病毒感染过程中MDA-5反应较TLR-3和RIG-I更为强烈,而在炎性反应过程中RANTES和IP-10反应更加剧烈,IL-6、TNF-α和IFN-β反应则相对较温和一些。本研究在一定程度上反映了机体对流感病毒的免疫反应机制,为在生产中疫苗的使用具有一定的指导意义。     

Pathology of specific-pathogen-free chickens inoculated with H5N1 avian influenza viruses isolated in Japan in 2004

Specific-pathogen-free chickens inoculated with H5N1 highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) viruses isolated in Japan in 2004 were investigated pathologically. The chickens inoculated intravenously with the viruses died within 26 hr after inoculation. Macroscopically, minimal necrosis of the tip of the comb, and hemorrhages of the palpebral conjunctiva, liver, cerebellum, and muscles were rarely observed. Histologically, dead chickens had minimal focal necrosis of hepatocytes with fibrinous thrombi in sinusoids, mild necrosis of splenic ellipsoids with fibrinous exudation, minimal necrosis of the brain, mild necrosis of epidermal cells of the comb with congestion of the lamina propria, and hemorrhages and edema of the lamina propria of the conjunctiva. Virus antigens were seen in the sinusoidal endothelial cells and hepatocytes in the liver, the capillary endothelial cells of the spleen, the capillary endothelial cells and cardiac myocytes in the heart, the capillary endothelial cells and necrotic nerve cells in the brain, the capillary endothelial cells in the lamina propria of the comb, the renal tubular epithelial cells, and the pancreatic acinar cells. The chickens inoculated by natural infectious routes died within 1-4 days after inoculation. Macroscopically, some chickens had hemorrhages in the conjunctiva, edematous swelling of the face and wattles, hydropericardium, hemorrhages of the proventriculus and bursa of Fabricius, increased secretion of tracheal mucus, and congestion and edema of lungs. Histologic lesions by natural infectious routes were similar to those by intravenous inoculation, except for the pancreatic necrosis. This study suggests H5N1 HPAI viruses isolated in Japan in 2004 cause pathologic conditions similar to natural cases.     

鹅源H5N1亚型禽流感病毒感染雏鸡免疫器官细胞凋亡的研究

为研究鹅源H5N1亚型禽流感病毒(AIV)人工感染雏鸡免疫器官细胞凋亡的动态变化,本研究将50只1日龄SPF雏鸡随机分为两组。试验组雏鸡于7日龄,分别经鼻、眼、口同时感染105TCID50的鹅源H5N1亚型AIV,分别于感染后3d、4d、5d、7d和14d迫杀,采取胸腺、法氏囊和脾脏,应用TUNEL染色法和透射电镜技术观察其细胞凋亡的动态变化情况。结果显示,试验组雏鸡的胸腺和脾脏凋亡细胞数量在感染后3d～7d极显著高于对照组(p<0.01);法氏囊凋亡细胞数量在感染后3d～4d比对照组明显增加(p<0.05或p<0.01)。组织器官超微结构检测可见凋亡细胞核染色质固缩并凝结成块,聚集在核膜周围,呈新月状或环状;细胞质浓缩。表明鹅源H5N1AIV能够诱导感染雏鸡免疫器官发生细胞凋亡。     

Infectivity and transmissibility of H9N2 avian influenza virus in chickens and wild terrestrial birds

Genetic changes in avian influenza viruses influence their infectivity, virulence and transmission. Recently we identified a novel genotype of H9N2 viruses in widespread circulation in poultry in Pakistan that contained polymerases (PB2, PB1 and PA) and non-structural (NS) gene segments identical to highly pathogenic H7N3 viruses. Here, we investigated the potential of these viruses to cause disease and assessed the transmission capability of the virus within and between poultry and wild terrestrial avian species. Groups of broilers, layers, jungle fowl, quail, sparrows or crows were infected with a representative strain (A/chicken/UDL-01/08) of this H9N2 virus and then mixed with naïve birds of the same breed or species, or different species to examine transmission. With the exception of crows, all directly inoculated and contact birds showed clinical signs, varying in severity with quail showing the most pronounced clinical signs. Virus shedding was detected in all infected birds, with quail showing the greatest levels of virus secretion, but only very low levels of virus were found in directly infected crow samples. Efficient virus intra-species transmission was observed within each group with the exception of crows in which no evidence of transmission was seen. Interspecies transmission was examined between chickens and sparrows and vice versa and efficient transmission was seen in either direction. These results highlight the ease of spread of this group of H9N2 viruses between domesticated poultry and sparrows and show that sparrows need to be considered as a high risk species for transmitting H9N2 viruses between premises.     

重组rSD01H9N2禽流感病毒感染A549细胞及其诱导的免疫反应

为了解禽流感病毒(AIV)与其他病毒重组带来的风险,本试验利用反向遗传技术,以H9N2A/Chicken/Shandong/01/2008(SD01)株为骨架,将其PA基因替换为H1N1A/swine/Shandong/07/2011(SD07)株的PA基因,构建了1株重组病毒rSD01-PA。以A549细胞为模型,感染H9N2AIV SD01及其重组株rSD01-PA。通过间接免疫荧光(IFA)和荧光定量PCR(qRT-PCR)的方法,检测H9N2AIV及其重组株在A549细胞上的复制情况,以及4种模式识别受体(TLR-3、TLR-7、RIG-I和MDA-5)和4种细胞因子(IFN-β、IL-6、MX和OAS)。结果显示:SD01和重组株rSD01-PA在A549细胞上均能有效复制,且重组株rSD01-PA复制能力较强。同时2株毒均能引起4种模式识别受体和4种细胞因子显著上调。在病毒感染的过程中,rSD01-PA感染A549细胞引起的炎性细胞因子IFN-β、IL-6和MX的表达水平较SD01更高。本试验结果将有助于进一步认识H9N2亚型AIV与其他病毒重组带来的风险以及病毒感染后宿主的防御机制及感染反应。     

Virus interference between H7N2 low pathogenic avian influenza virus and lentogenic Newcastle disease virus in experimental co-infections in chickens and turkeys

Low pathogenicity avian influenza virus (LPAIV) and lentogenic Newcastle disease virus (lNDV) are commonly reported causes of respiratory disease in poultry worldwide with similar clinical and pathobiological presentation. Co-infections do occur but are not easily detected, and the impact of co-infections on pathobiology is unknown. In this study chickens and turkeys were infected with a lNDV vaccine strain (LaSota) and a H7N2 LPAIV (A/turkey/VA/SEP-67/2002) simultaneously or sequentially three days apart. No clinical signs were observed in chickens co-infected with the lNDV and LPAIV or in chickens infected with the viruses individually. However, the pattern of virus shed was different with co-infected chickens, which excreted lower titers of lNDV and LPAIV at 2 and 3 days post inoculation (dpi) and higher titers at subsequent time points. All turkeys inoculated with the LPAIV, whether or not they were exposed to lNDV, presented mild clinical signs. Co-infection effects were more pronounced in turkeys than in chickens with reduction in the number of birds shedding virus and in virus titers, especially when LPAIV was followed by lNDV. In conclusion, co-infection of chickens or turkeys with lNDV and LPAIV affected the replication dynamics of these viruses but did not affect clinical signs. The effect on virus replication was different depending on the species and on the time of infection. These results suggest that infection with a heterologous virus may result in temporary competition for cell receptors or competent cells for replication, most likely interferon-mediated, which decreases with time.     

H9N2亚型禽流感病毒对樱桃谷肉鸭的致病性

为了研究H9N2亚型禽流感病毒（AIV）对樱桃谷肉鸭的致病性。本试验利用1株鸭源H9N2亚型AIV分别通过静脉注射和鼻内接种途径感染2周龄健康樱桃谷肉鸭,观察感染鸭的症状、排毒规律及组织学变化,流式细胞术分析外周血CD4^＋和CD8^＋T细胞变化规律,实时荧光定量（RT-qPCR）检测脾脏中细胞因子的表达水平,并测定血清HI抗体效价。结果显示,攻毒后,静脉注射组鸭出现体质量增长显著缓慢、呼吸道症状以及全身性感染,而鼻内接种组鸭无明显临床症状,仅发生局部感染;两攻毒组鸭泄殖腔较气管排毒量高且排毒时间长;外周血CD8^＋T细胞显著升高,并且脾脏IFNA、IFNB、IFNG和IL2表达水平上调,IL1B和IL6表达水平仅在静脉注射组上调;血清HI抗体水平低且维持时间短。结果表明,在实验室条件下,H9N2亚型AIV对樱桃谷肉鸭致病力较弱,仅静脉接种组引起鸭体质量增长缓慢及呼吸系统出血、淋巴细胞浸润。