<Emphasis Type="Italic">Lobesia botrana</Emphasis> males mainly fly at dusk: video camera-assisted pheromone traps and implications for mating disruption

Pheromone-mediated mating disruption (MD) is currently considered an effective strategy to control the European grapevine moth (EGVM), Lobesia botrana, with a successful interference on natural female calling during the male searching flight. However, little is known on the impact of the hour of the day on EGVM male flight. While various models forecasting the day of maximum presence of males per flight have been developed, field research on the male flight activity over 24 hours is scarce. Hence, we used video camera-assisted pheromone traps to allow a continuous monitoring of EGVM flights over daylight and night hours, quantifying captures of males. Experiments were carried out in three vineyards located in northern Spain over two years (2016 and 2017). Results showed that EGVM flight mainly occurred between 21:00 and 23:00 h (GMT+1, daylight saving time). Furthermore, male catches significantly differed over the study year, annual flight period and vineyard. Most of the dispensers used worldwide for EGVM MD continuously release the main sex pheromone component [(7E,9Z)-7,9-dodecadien-1-yl acetate], except for some automatic devices releasing puffs of sex pheromones at selected time intervals. The findings presented here can be useful to optimize the MD technique, identifying selected time intervals when the release of EGVM synthetic pheromones can be concentrated, boosting MD efficacy against this important pest, minimizing the release of synthetic sex pheromone molecules in the environment and reducing application costs.     

RETRACTED ARTICLE: Efficacy of inundative releases of Trichogramma evanescens in controlling Lobesia botrana in vineyards in Egypt

The present work was conducted to evaluate the efficacy of Trichogramma evanescens (Westwood) in controlling the European grape berry moth Lobesia botrana (Den. & Schiff.) in two vineyards, in El-Beheira and El-Gharbia Governorates, northern Egypt during the 2004 and 2005 seasons. T. evanescens was mass produced on Sitotroga cerealella (Olivier) eggs in National Research Center in Egypt. The horizontal and vertical searching activity of T. evanescens was studied to determine the proper way of distributing the Trichogramma cards in vineyards in 2004. Field experiments were also conducted to evaluate inundative releases of T. evanescens to control L. botrana on large scale in 2005. Parasitism by T. evanescens on L. botrana eggs was greatly affected with the horizontal or vertical distance from the release points. Parasitism reached over 97% and reduction percents of infestation were caused by the pest reached 96.8% in treated plots. A significant increase in the crop was achieved in treated plots. The results showed that the release cards should be distributed in every three grape rows and on height 130–170 cm to obtain good parasitism rates. T. evanescens could be a potential candidate for biological control of L. botrana in vineyards.     

模毒蛾性信息素应用技术研究

模毒蛾Lymantria monacha是内蒙古大兴安岭林区重大森林害虫。通过对模毒蛾性信息素诱捕器应用技术的研究显示:不同类型的诱捕器诱虫效果不同,圆筒型和船型诱捕器的诱捕效果较好,方形的较差;诱捕器设置高度对诱虫效果的影响不同,设置在树冠下层和中层的诱捕器诱捕效果较好,上层的较差;不同设置距离的诱捕器的诱虫效果不同,随着设置距离的增加,诱捕器的诱捕量逐渐下降,设置于距林缘50 m的诱捕器诱虫效果最好,性信息素诱捕器的最远引诱距离可能为280 m。研究结果为利用性信息素对模毒蛾进行种群监测和防治提供了依据。     

The simplification of traditional vineyard based agroforests in northwestern Portugal: some ecological implications

In northwestern Portugal, peasants have developed complex vineyard (Vitis vinifera) systems comprising agroforests composed of host trees, vines, annual crops and in some cases animals. Until recently these vineyards suffered very few pest problems and received relatively low pesticide loads. In the last few years, new policy and market forces have prompted the conversion of many of these systems to monoculture thereby decreasing the biodiversity inherent to traditional vineyards. Many scientists are concerned that with accelerating rates of vineyard simplification insect pest and disease problems may increase due to lack of habitat and resources for natural enemies or to a concentration of preferred host plants for specific pathogens and herbivores. During the growing seasons of 1997 and 1999 we conducted several farm surveys of traditional agroforestry and modernized, monoculture farms. We conducted field measurements to elucidate trends in insect pest and disease incidence in both types of vineyards. Our surveys revealed that monoculture vineyards exhibited lower number of species of predators and parasites and correspondingly higher densities of two grape herbivores (Lobesia botrana and Empoasca vitis) than diverse vineyard agroforests. Botrytis bunch rot seemed more prevalent in the monoculture systems, which also received increased fungicide applications when compared to the traditional vineyards. Although preliminary, our studies suggest that new vineyard designs may be more productive, but such gains occur at the expense of biodiversity and agricultural sustainability, reflected on higher pest vulnerability. Further agroecological studies are needed to account for the full ecological costs of the modernization of traditional vineyard agroforests.This revised version was published online in November 2005 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Testing mating disruption of the horse chestnut leafminer <Emphasis Type="Italic">Cameraria ohridella</Emphasis> (Lepidoptera: Gracillariidae) in field tents

Since the beginning of the invasion of the horse chestnut leafminer, Cameraria ohridella Deschka and Dimic 1986 (Lepidoptera: Gracillariidae), into Europe over 20 years ago the damage to white flowering horse chestnut trees, Aesculus hippocastanum L (Sapindales: Hippocastanaceae) has remained extensive. This study evaluates the possible use of pheromone mating disruption as a control option against the horse chestnut leafminer. The heterogeneous distribution of ornamental trees in parks and gardens requires a different approach to evaluate pest control than in homogeneous crop fields, orchards or plantations where mating disruption is usually applied. For this reason we set up field experiments with host trees of the same age and size in field tents with a defined number of leafminers in two different densities. In the first experiment the effective quantity of newly developed C. ohridella pheromone dispensers was tested by recapturing males using traps baited with virgin females. Ninety-five percent less males were captured if three or more dispensers were positioned at a 4 m radius around the outside of an experimental tent. This set up was then used in the second experiment where male and female leafminers were released into field tents in order to assess the effect of pheromone on the reduction of leaf mining damage. Surprisingly, the pheromone dispensers were found to have no effect on the number of leaf mines at either low or high leafminer densities. Mating sites of the horse chestnut leafminer, multiple matings and distribution of pheromone dispenser are discussed as possible factors influencing the outcome in this study.     

Methodische Probleme des Fanges von Lymantria monacha L. (Lepid. Lymantriidae) in verschiedenen Pheromon-Lockfallen

Methodical problems of Nun moth trapping (Lepidoptera, Lymantriidae) in various pheromone-traps Various types of pheromone traps, which were used for catching ofLymantria monacha L., did not prove to be well suited either for checking of the occurrence of the pest and for its prognosis, or for estimating the size of the Nun moth population. Much more reliable data were obtained by using simple plates made of zinc sheet of size 50 × 50 cm or 50 × 100 cm, which were either on one or both sides covered with glue and sometimes they had an opening in the middle (10 × 10 cm) to allow spreading of the pheromone on both sides of the plate.Eight series of experiments, the results of which are given in the text, in the figures and tables, showed that the method of using pheromone traps renders new possibilities not only for prognosis and checking of the occurence of the Nun moth, but also for research on its ecology and ethology. It enables to investigate mating behavior and ecological problems even at the non-escape-phase of the pest. Further elaboration of this method in future years will make possible to derive from the data, obtained from the pheromene traps, data on the abundance of Nun moth in forest growths and on its flight distances.     

Zur Überwachung des grünen Eichenwicklers,Tortrix viridana L. (Lep., Tortricidae) mittels synthetischen Sexualpheromons

In the period from 1986 to 1988 the synthetic sexual pheromone ofTortrix viridana L. and different types of traps were investigated in Slovakian oak forests. The dependence of male numbers per trap on the forest type groups was studied parallely as well as the attraction of pheromones for other moth species was tested, too. The pheromon TV83 (Z11-14: Ac+Z11-14: OH, 9∶1, 50 μg) and unsticky plastic trap with DDVP called “Mushroom” showed the highest effectivity. The pheromon monitoring confirmed the theory that the pest prefers the biotops with dominance ofQuercus pubescens andQ. robur. The optimum of pest was bound to forest type groups Carpineto-Quercetum und Ulmeto-Fraxinetum carpineum. The minimal number of other moth species was observed in traps with pheromons TV83 (?SFR) and Hoechst (FRG).     

我国口岸亚洲型舞毒蛾监测情况调查分析

为充分应对北美植物保护组织植物检疫措施第33号标准,笔者将我国口岸2011-2017年利用舞毒蛾Lymantria dispar性信息素监测种群发生情况进行了总结,包括具体监测口岸信息、诱捕器数量、年诱捕量,分析各口岸年平均诱捕量与当地平均气温、平均湿度和平均降水量之间的关系。结果表明:空间因素和气候因素共同决定了舞毒蛾发生情况,在R^2=25.1%水平上,空间因素单独贡献了6.9%的影响,而气候因素单独贡献了10.3%的影响,两者综合影响了7.9%;温度和湿度两个气候因子对舞毒蛾发生影响较大。亚洲型舞毒蛾在口岸5 km陆地范围内广泛发生,舞毒蛾输出风险依然存在,应建立国内外有害生物发生动态监测信息平台,以便更好实施有害生物综合防控。     

Season-long mating disruption of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Grapholita molesta</Emphasis> (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) by one machine application of pheromone in wax drops (SPLAT-OFM)

A novel emulsified wax dispenser (SPLAT-OFM) of pheromone was evaluated in concert with a custom-built, tractor-mounted applicator, designed for fast application of dispensers for mating disruption of Oriental fruit moth, Grapholita molesta (Busck), in apple. The formulation consisted of microcrystalline wax emulsified in water. It was loaded with G. molesta pheromone (93:6:1 blend of (Z)-8-dodecen-1-yl-acetate:(E)-8-dodecen-1-yl-acetate:(Z)-8-dodecen-1-ol) at 10% by weight. The hydraulically driven applicator dispensed the wax formulation as discrete particles from a rotating double-orifice distributor positioned directly above the tree canopy. Wax-drop size averaged (±SEM) 0.38 ± 0.16 g and 4.3 ± 0.5 drops adhered per tree. Following a single mechanized application of SPLAT-OFM on 24 April at 8 ml per tree (1.6 kg/ha) to 0.8 ha blocks of apple, male G. molesta orientation to optimally attractive pheromone traps was disrupted by 98% relative to untreated control plots for the whole season. Furthermore, on 17 weekly deployments of tethered virgin females (1,016 females deployed and 732 recovered for dissection) throughout the season, no mating was detected in SPLAT-OFM-treated blocks, while mating in control blocks averaged 27%. During the first 17 days following deployment in sticky traps, SPLAT-OFM drops attracted ca. 1/46th of the number of male G. molesta attracted to optimized synthetic lures. However, following 17 days of field aging, SPLAT-OFM drops became equally attractive to optimized synthetic lures for the remainder of the season. The release rate of pheromone from wax drops 0–14 and 15–76 days following deployment averaged 21.4 and 5.3 μg/h, respectively. The trapping and release rate data were consistent with competitive attraction as the mechanism mediating disruption. Shoot injury following the first moth generation was sevenfold less in SPLAT-OFM treated blocks compared with controls and fruit injury at the end of the season in treated blocks was approximately half of that recorded in controls.     

Calling behaviour and male response towards sex pheromone of poplar moth <Emphasis Type="Italic">Condylorrhiza vestigialis</Emphasis> (Lepidoptera: Crambidae)

The calling behaviour of virgin females Condylorrhiza vestigialis Guenée, 1854 (Lepidoptera: Crambidae) and the female pheromone gland extract activity were studied under laboratory conditions. Most of the females started calling from their first scotophase period after emergence. Maximum calling occurred between the seventh and tenth hours of the scotophase period. The length of the calling increased with age until the fourth scotophase, but the onset of calling time did not differ with age. The number of calling bouts increased significantly with age, but the mean duration of each calling bout (20.8 min) did not vary with age. Extracts of pheromone glands evaluated in a Y-tube olfactometer attracted significantly more males than control, 70 and 30%, respectively. Gas chromatographic–electroantennogram detection (GC–EAD) analysis of these extracts indicated the presence of a single EAD-active peak, the putative sex pheromone of the species. This pheromone compound may be suitable for monitoring populations densities of C. vestigialis, and for detection of the onset of the seasonal flight period. An efficient pheromone is of importance also with respect to current attempts to develop new control methods for this important pest of Populus spp. in Brazil.     

An attempt to control <Emphasis Type="Italic">Cameraria ohridella</Emphasis> using an attract-and-kill technique

This study estimates the efficacy of an attract-and-kill (A&K) technique to control the horse chestnut leaf miner, Cameraria ohridella Deschka and Dimic (Lepidoptera, Gracillariidae), an invasive insect pest of the horse chestnut, Aesculus hippocastanum L. (Hippocastanaceae). The A&K formulation was dispensed as 50 μl droplets of paste-like matrix, containing C. ohridella sex pheromone, (8E,10Z)-tetradeca-8,10-dienal (85% + pure; 0.16% w/w) and a fast acting contact toxicant, pyrocides (94% pure; 6% w/w), applied directly to the bark of the trees. It was tested in 2003 at rates of 30 and 45 droplets/tree at the Ostrobramska site and at rates of 30, 60 and 90 droplets/tree at the Woloska site in Warsaw, Poland, for the first insect generation. A set of untreated plots (0 droplets/tree) was established at each site as well. The treatment efficacy was estimated using two indices: (1) moth catches in pheromone traps and (2) the number of mines per leaf. Trap catches were significantly higher in the untreated plots than in the treated plots regardless of the application rate in all sites. However, there were no significant differences in leaf damage amongst all plots on each site. At the “Lazienki Krolewskie” park the attractiveness of two types of pheromone sources were compared: traps were baited with rubber septum lures or with A&K droplets. The catches of C. ohridella in traps baited with lures were lower than captures in A&K droplet-baited traps, but the difference was not significant. Possible reasons for the low efficacy of the A&K method in management of C. ohridella and reducing leaf damage are discussed.     

性信息素诱杀山地果园梨小食心虫效果比较

在浙南云和县重河湾山地果园,采用不同类型诱捕器、不同药剂和不同浓度性信息素比较了梨小食心虫的田间诱捕效果。结果显示,不同类型诱捕器中,以粘胶型诱蛾效果最好,其次是水盆型,其它诱捕器不适合诱捕梨小食心虫;纯梨小食心虫性信息素诱蛾效果最好,加入梨酯后,诱蛾效果显著下降,梨果中提取出的梨酯诱蛾效果最差;同一性引诱剂诱捕效果随浓度的增加显著提高,但浓度增加到一定程度后,会显著下降。     

Biology of barley shoot fly <Emphasis Type="Italic">Delia flavibasis</Emphasis> Stein (Diptera: Anthomyiidae) on resistant and susceptible barley cultivars

The biology of barley shoot fly Delia flavibasis was studied using resistant (Dinsho and Harbu) and susceptible (Holker) barley cultivars at Sinana Agricultural Research Center, Ethiopia. A higher number of eggs was laid on Holker (17 eggs/female) than on Dinsho (11 eggs/female) or Harbu (12 eggs/female). However, there were no differences between cultivars in preoviposition and total reproductive periods. The shortest time required to complete larval, pupal and total developmental stages from egg to adult emergence occurred when the insect was reared on the cultivar Holker. Pupal weight, adult emergence and adult longevity did not differ between cultivars. The female to male sex ratio was 1:1. This study enabled us to understand the duration of each of the life stages of D. flavibasis, which will undoubtedly aid researchers and growers to design a sustainable management strategy against barley shoot fly.     

When warmer means weaker: high temperatures reduce behavioural and immune defences of the larvae of a major grapevine pest

Phytophagous insects evolving in agroecosystems express numerous defences when faced with myriads of natural enemies. Such defensive traits might impair the effectiveness of biological control relying on these natural enemies, mostly parasitoids. In the case of parasitoid threat, these defences consist of the avoidance of the parasitoid (reduced exposure to antagonists through shortening of developmental time), hindrance of oviposition (evasive behaviours and morphological protection) or destruction of the parasitoid eggs (encapsulation and melanisation by means of the immune system). Previous works focused on one defensive trait only when investigating the effects of temperature on host resistance. By doing so, they assumed that all defensive traits would respond uniformly to a change occurring in thermal environment, which remains an undocumented fact. To test this assumption in the context of global warming, we adopted a global overview of host resistance by examining the effects of rising temperatures on multiple defensive traits used by the grape pest, Lobesia botrana, against its larval parasitoids. Although warmer conditions led to reduced exposure to parasitoids by accelerating larval development, warmer conditions also elicited extensive weakening of behavioural and immune defences. These results confirm that temperatures might differently modulate the levels of expression of several defensive traits. An increase in growth rate and pupal mass also occurred, especially for females, which may contribute to greater pest fecundity in the future. However, the decline of L. botrana resistance might enhance the efficiency of the biological control naturally exerted by parasitoids in vineyards, thereby limiting the damage to crops.     

Factors influencing the parasitism of codling moth eggs by Trichogramma cacoeciae March. and T. principium Sug. et Sor. (Hymen. Trichogrammatidae)

Non-choice laboratory experiments were conducted to evaluate the influence of host acceptance, previous rearing host, host age and the contact time between parasitoids and host on the efficacy of Trichogramma cacoeciae Marchal and T. principum Sug. et Sor. against the codling moth Cydia pomonella. The tendency of T. cacoeciae and T. principum females to attack the codling moth was similar to E. kuehniella, and it was not affected by the previous rearing host. T. cacoeciae showed a greater preference for codling moth eggs than T. principum. A high mean number of emerged F₁ progeny was observed when both parasitoids were sequentially reared on codling moths. Codling moth acceptance, the number of parasitized eggs and the number of emerged progeny were higher when younger codling moth eggs were offered. The tendency of female parasitoids to oviposit remained unchanged when the contact time with the host was prolonged. When the contact time was increased, the number of parasitized eggs and emerged offspring was higher. The results showed that the codling moth fertility (egg hatch) was reduced when younger eggs were offered and when the contact time with the parasitoids was increased. T. cacoeciae was more efficient in reducing codling moth fertility. The current study provided essential information necessary to increase the efficiency of T. cacoeciae and T. principum against the codling moth.     

Seasonal population trends of<Emphasis Type="Italic"> Liriomyza huidobrensis</Emphasis> (Blanchard, 1926) (Diptera: Agromyzidae) on cucumber (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Cucumis sativus</Emphasis> L.) in Western Turkey

Liriomyza huidobrensis (Blanchard) (Diptera: Agromyzidae) is an important pest in cucumber greenhouses in Izmir, Western Turkey. This study was carried out during the spring and autumn seasons of 1999 and 2000 in two adjacent cucumber greenhouses, each 1,000 m² in size. Population densities of adult L. huidobrensis in insecticide-treated and non-treated greenhouses were compared by using yellow sticky traps. Ten traps were placed in the non-treated greenhouse and ten traps in the insecticide-treated greenhouse. Yellow sticky traps were changed weekly and the number of flies counted in order to compare the two greenhouses. In addition to monitoring the leaf miner population, in each greenhouse 100 plants were checked and the ratio of infested plants, the ratio of infested leaves per plant and the number of mines per leaf were recorded weekly. The population density of the leaf miner was almost the same in both insecticide-treated and non-treated greenhouses. Thus, it was concluded that using yellow sticky traps will be healthier and more cost effective than using pesticides. Furthermore using pesticides is risky for the environment and the use of yellow sticky traps can easily reduce the number of pesticide applications. If yellow sticky traps are used in the greenhouse in a completely isolated environment and the appropriate insecticide is used when it is necessary, this will provide successful and integrated management against L. huidobrensis.     

Some biological interactions between the parasitoid <Emphasis Type="Italic">Anagyrus pseudococci</Emphasis> (Girault) (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) and its host <Emphasis Type="Italic">Planococcus ficus</Emphasis> (Signoret) (Hemiptera: Coccoidea: Pseudococcidae)

The development, longevity, fecundity and life-table parameters of the endoparasitoid Anagyrus pseudococci (Girault) (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae), 15 d.o. (3rd-instar nymphs) and 21 d.o. (young adult females) of the vine mealybug, Planococcus ficus (Signoret) (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) at 28 ± 1°C, 65 ± 10%RH and 16:8h L:D under laboratory conditions. The developmental time of female parasitoids within the host was 17.7 ± 0.39 days in 15 d.o. and 16.65 ± 0.25 days in 21 d.o. hosts; for males, development time was 16.85 ± 0.29 and 15.25 ± 0.09 days, respectively. The average number of offspring per female was 22.35 ± 1.68 in 15 d.o. and 34.8 ± 2.56 in 21 d.o. vine mealybugs. The longevity of female parasitoids was 14.8 ± 0.98 days in 15 d.o. and 15.65 ± 0.92 days in 21 d.o. mealybugs, respectively; for males, longevity was determined as 7.3 ± 0.43 and 6.7 ± 0.54 days, respectively. The mean time of pupation was 7.85 ± 0.003 days in 15 d.o. mealybugs and 8.65 ± 0.003 days in 21 d.o. mealybugs. The aggregate encapsulation rate in the parasitized 15 d.o. mealybugs was 49.73 and 60.36% in 21 d.o. mealybugs. Furthermore, effective encapsulation was 24.82% in 15 d.o. mealybugs and 37.50% in 21 d.o. mealybugs. Population growth rate (r _m) for A. pseudococci was 0.0999 female/female/days in 15 d.o. mealybugs and 0.1269 female/female/days in 21 d.o. mealybugs. The mean population generation time was 23.49 days for parasitoids reared in 15-days-old and 22.39 days when reared in 21 d.o. mealybugs.     

性信息素诱捕器对槐小卷蛾雄蛾诱捕效果的影响

研究了性信息素诱捕器的颜色、形状、粘胶面积以及在树冠内放置的位置对槐小卷蛾Cydia trasias (Mayrick)雄蛾诱捕效果的影响。结果表明，白、绿和黄3种颜色的诱捕器的诱捕效果明显优于蓝颜色的诱捕效果；三角形诱捕器诱捕雄蛾的效果明显优于双层圆盘形和双层船形的诱捕效果；粘胶面积为500．0cm^2的三角形诱捕器的诱捕效果明显优于250．0cm^2和166．7cm^2的诱捕效果；悬挂于树冠中上部的诱捕器的诱捕效果明显优于悬挂于树冠中部及中下部的诱捕效果。在槐小卷蛾性信息素监测与防治系统中，悬挂在树冠中上部、粘胶面积为500.0^2的白颜色的三角形诱捕器的诱蛾效果最佳。     

Flight patterns of the peach twig borer,Anarsia lineatella zell. (Lep., Gelechiidae) in central europe as observed using pheromone traps

Pheromone traps were used for monitoring phenology of the peach twig borer,Anarsia lineatella, in Central Bohemia. The pest has two generations a year, the first one (owerwintering) is usually more numerous than the second one. The peak of the flight of the first generation begins by day-degrees (DD) 400–450 °C and the peak of the flight of the second generation at DD 900–960 °C. DD data can be used for supervised control both in the case of timing the chemical treatment and for deciding on using pheromones for male confusion. The suitable term for chemical treatment in the given locality in Central Bohemia is DD 360°C (above the developmental threshold 10 °C). The injury to fruits and shoots of peach trees similar to that caused byA. lineatella does also the oriental fruit moth,Cydia molesta. According to very low catches in pheromone trapsC. molesta does not seem to be economically important in Central Bohemia at present.With 2 tables and 3 figures     

A review of research on the nun moth (Lymantria monacha L.) conducted with pheromone traps in Czechoslovakia, 1973–1984

A review of research on the nun moth (Lymantria monacha L.) 1973–1984 in Czechoslovakia conducted with pheromone traps is given. By using this method many new results on bionomy, ecology and gradology of this pest could be obtained.