Lessons for farmer-oriented research: Experiences from a West African soil fertility management project

Donors, scientists and farmers all benefit when research and development projects have high impact. However, potential benefits are sometimes not realized. Our objective in this study is to determine why resource-poor farmers in Togo (declined to) adopt recommended practices that were promoted through a multi-organizational project on soil fertility management. We examine the processes and outcomes related to the adoption process. The project was undertaken in three villages in the Central Region of Togo in West Africa. The development and research processes that took place during the implementation of the project were critically analyzed using a conceptual framework that may be useful for improving the impact of future participatory projects. At the macro level, opportunities for innovation were not deliberately explored with participating farmers and other village members; consequently “pre-analytical choices” made during the planning phase resulted in practices that resource-poor farmers were, for a variety of reasons, unable or unwilling to adopt. From the outset, donors and scientists focused on soil fertility management, but failed to take into account the wider economic context within which soil fertility management took place. This was a major obstacle to the subsequent adoption of recommended management strategies. Scientists and donor partners measured the success of the Project in terms of crop productivity, but farmers’ choices were influenced by a complex mix of socio-economic, political and technical factors. We also illustrate the importance of selecting appropriate categories of farmers for a particular experiment. We conclude that for participatory research and development projects to be successful, it is not enough to develop technologies that “work” in a technical sense. In order to be scaled up and widely implemented, such technologies must also meet a variety of needs of resource-poor farmers and be acceptable from a socio-cultural point of view. Suzanne Nederlof holds a PhD in Communication and Innovation Studies from Wageningen University in the Netherlands. After finishing her MSc. degree in Development Sociology at the same university she worked at a research project in Burkina Faso and at the International Center for Soil Fertility and Agricultural Development (IFDC) in Togo. Subsequently, she was based at the FAO regional office for Africa in Ghana, assigned to the Convergence of Sciences Program. She conducted the fieldwork for this article during that period. She completed her PhD research on agricultural research with a scholarship from the Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research. She is currently employed as an advisor in rural innovation at the Royal Tropical Institute (KIT) in Amsterdam, The Netherlands. Constant Dangbégnon worked for several years (1990–1998) on Inter-University Cooperation (Benin, the Netherlands and Israel) in the area of indigenous knowledge and the soft side of natural resource management. This work constituted the basis of his PhD from Wageningen University in The Netherlands. He joined IFDC – Africa Division in Lomé (Togo) in June 1999 as a socio-economic extension specialist in the Input Accessibility Program (IAP).     

A methodology for tracking the “fate” of technological interventions in agriculture

The primary focus of agricultural research and extension in eastern Africa is technology generation and dissemination. Despite prior critiques of the shortcomings of this approach, the consequences of such activities continue to be measured through the number of technologies developed and introduced into the supply chain. At best, impact is assessed by the total numbers of adopters and by the household and system factors influencing adoption. While the diffusion research tradition has made substantive advances in recent decades, attention to what happens to technologies after adaptive, on-farm research trials continues to be limited in practice. While a host of newer approaches designed to correct for past shortcomings in diffusion research is now available, integrative methodologies that capitalize on the strengths of these different traditions are sorely needed. This article presents a more encompassing methodology for tracking the fate of technological interventions, illustrating the potential applications of findings for enhancing the positive impact of agricultural research and extension in the region. Laura German holds a BSc in Agricultural Engineering from Cornell University (2001) and a PhD in Ecological Anthropology from the University of Georgia (2001). Following many years of involvement in Latin America, she took a position in 2002 as Scientist for the World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF) under the African Highlands Initiative, an ecoregional program of the Consultative Group for International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) and a network of the Association for Strengthening Agricultural Research in East and Central Africa. Her current research interests include theoretical and applied work in three main areas: (1) research-development linkages; (2) integrated natural resource management at the landscape/micro-catchment scale; and (3) collective action in natural resource management. Jeremias Mowo holds a BSc in Agriculture (1979) from Dar Es Salaam University and an MSc (1983) and PhD (2000) in Soil Science from Wageningen University. He worked as soil fertility specialist in cotton-based agro-ecosystems for 11 years and coordinated soil research in Tanzania for four years. From 1998 to 2005, he worked under the African Highlands Initiative as Coordinator for the Lushoto Benchmark Site in Tanzania. In May 2005, he took up a two-year contract with the Institut des Sciences Agronomiques du Rwanda (ISAR) as Senior Scientist in Soil and Water Management Research where he is currently spearheading the Integrated Watershed Management approach. His research interests include integrated natural resource management, farmer participatory research, methods and approaches for technology transfer, soil and water management research, organic farming and use of indigenous knowledge in soil management. Margaret Kingamkono holds a BSc in Agriculture (1994) and an MSc in Agriculture (1996) from the Sokoine University of Agriculture. Since 1995, she has worked for the Ministry of Agriculture and Food Security in Tanzania with a focus on livestock production. She has carried out extensive collaborative work on areas of land resource management, participatory approaches, and crop-livestock-agroforestry interactions. Her research interests include gender and development and integrated natural resource management.     

Poultry Farmers’ Preference and use of Commercial and Self-compounded Feeds in Oyo Area of Oyo State, Nigeria

This study investigated poultry farmers’ perceptions, preferences, and use of commercially compounded and self-compounded feeds in the Oyo Area of Oyo State, Nigeria. Data were collected from 120 poultry farmers through a structured interview schedule. The study concluded that poultry farmers prefer and use self-compounded feeds (SCF) instead of commercially compounded feeds (CCF) because (a) self-compounded feeds are of better quality than commercially compounded feeds, (b) there are no quality control measures in the poultry feed industry in the Oyo Area, (c) commercially compounded feeds cost more than self-compounded feeds, and (d) farmers choose feed based on the perceived quality of the feed, their technical ability to produce feed by themselves, the cost of CCF, the storability of feed, and the cost and availability of transportation. Based on these findings, it is recommended that interested public and private agencies should organize annual extension workshops and training for poultry farmers in the study area on (a) feed formulation; (b) feed ingredient mixing and compounding; (c) selection of ingredients, mixtures, and additives; and (d) the establishment, operation, and maintenance of feed mills. Farmers should be encouraged to form feed mill cooperative societies. The performance of the Standards Organization of Nigeria (SON) should be monitored and evaluated to ensure its effective oversight of quality standards for agricultural products and inputs such as feeds and feed ingredients. S. O. Apantaku, PhD (Southern Illinois), is an Associate Professor and Head of the Department of Agricultural Extension and Rural Development, University of Agriculture, Abeokuta, Nigeria. His research interest is in agricultural extension education processes and development, farmers’ decision-making processes, and community and rural development. He is involved in extension work and teaches group dynamics in extension, rural community development and social change, agricultural extension teaching methods and learning processes, public relations in extension, and advanced rural sociology. E. O. A. Oluwalana is a PhD candidate and an Extension Research Fellow with the Agricultural Media Resources and Extension Center, University of Agriculture, Abeokuta, Nigeria. Her research interest is in farmers’ micro-credit financing, agro-processing and utilization, and women-in-agriculture. She teaches agribusiness management, cooperatives and agricultural finance and is involved in extension service in the area of women-in-development, agro-processing, and health and environmental issues. O. A. Adepegba is a graduate of the Department of Agricultural Extension and Rural Development, University of Agriculture, Abeokuta, Nigeria. She is presently a postgraduate candidate at the University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria. She is an Agricultural Extension Officer I with the Oyo West Local Government Council, Oyo State. She is interested in socio-economic issues in poultry production and farmers’ decision-making processes.     

Evolution of agricultural extension and information dissemination in Peru: An historical perspective focusing on potato-related pest control

Multiplicity and continual change characterize the Peruvian agricultural knowledge and information system (AKIS), reflecting changes in the agricultural sector as a whole. The evolution of these changes can be traced back to the pre-Columbian era when a relatively stable and well-organized system based on indigenous knowledge prevailed. During colonial (1532–1821) and early Republican times (beginning 1821) several changes affecting the agricultural sector contributed to a weakening of indigenous knowledge systems. During the 20th century extension services provided by the government and a variety of private organizations began to play an important role in the dissemination of information, albeit in an erratic way. Since the 1970s the system increased in complexity with the emergence of non-governmental institutions. Today government participation is limited and there is a more important participation by a number of NGOs and private organizations. This diversity of actors using different approaches has generated disarray in the information system owing to the lack of coherent policies to guide the interaction among actors. This paper uses the case of potato pest control-related information to illustrate changes in local knowledge systems. It differentiates pest control based on indigenous knowledge, chemical control, and integrated pest management (IPM) and explains how changes in the system have influenced the use of these three types of information in AKIS. Currently, the coexistence of different types of potato pest control information promoted and used by diverse and usually unconnected sets of organizations and individuals presents a challenge and requires inter-institutional action guided by clear policies to promote sustainable agriculture. Oscar Ortiz is an agronomist who specializes in agricultural extension, knowledge systems, and participatory research. He holds an MSc degree in crop production and agricultural extension from the La Molina National Agrarian University of Peru and a PhD from the Agricultural Extension and Rural Development Department at the University of Reading, UK. He has worked for the National Agricultural Research Institute and Nestle Company in Peru and is currently Division Leader for Integrated Crop Management at the International Potato Center (CIP) in Lima. Since 2001 he has been a visiting lecturer at the Graduate School of the La Molina National Agrarian University of Peru. He is a member of the Latin American Potato Association and the International Society for Horticultural Science.     

Farmers’ Views of Soil Erosion Problems and their Conservation Knowledge at Beressa Watershed, Central Highlands of Ethiopia

Farmers’ decisions to conserve natural resources generally and soil and water particularly are largely determined by their knowledge of the problems and perceived benefits of conservation. In Ethiopia, however, farmer perceptions of erosion problems and farmer conservation practices have received little analysis or use in conservation planning. This research examines farmers’ views of erosion problems and their conservation knowledge and practices in the Beressa watershed in the central highlands of Ethiopia. Data were obtained from a survey of 147 farm households managing 713 fields during the 2002/2003 cropping season. In-depth interviews and group discussions were also held with the farmers to obtain additional information. The results show that 72% of the farmers reported erosion problems, and they recognized that conservation was necessary. However, they considered erosion to be severe mostly when visible signs – rills and gullies – appeared on their fields. The majority of the farmers believe that erosion could be halted, and they use a range of practices for erosion control and fertility improvement. These include contour plowing (83%), drainage ditches (82%), and stone terraces/bunds (73%). Nevertheless, despite decades of conservation intervention in the area, it appears that most farmers have developed negative attitudes towards externally recommended measures. The research concludes that under the conditions present in the Ethiopian central highlands, soil and water conservation interventions should consider farmers’ conservation knowledge and practices to improve acceptance and adoption of the recommendations. Aklilu Amsalu is a lecturer in the Department of Geography and Environmental Studies of Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. He is currently doing his PhD research on best land management practices in highland watershed management in Ethiopia in the Department of Environmental Sciences of Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands. Jan de Graaff is a senior lecturer and researcher in the Erosion and Soil and Water Conservation Group of Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands. His expertise is on impact assessment and economic evaluation of soil and water conservation.     

Socio-cultural processes behind the differential distribution of organic farming in Denmark: a case study

Conversion to organic farming, along with its associated driving forces and barriers, has been explored intensively over the past decade, while studies on the distribution and impacts of local socio-cultural processes in relation to conversion to and diffusion of organic farming have been scarce. The concentration of organic farms in Denmark differs according to county and, moreover, there appears to be large within-county variation in the density of organic farms. The present study explores local aspects of conversion to organic farming and the factors that may help explain variation in density and concentration of organic farms within smaller areas. The study is based on nine qualitative interviews with organic farmers from two neighboring areas, referred to as “mainland” and “island,” respectively. Three farms were situated in the high-density area (mainland) and the remaining six in the low-density area (island). Furthermore, five advisors with connections to the area provided information with regard to their local experience and perceptions. Three main, and to some extent interacting, issues are discussed. The first is the price of land related to local scarcity of land, in the context of structural development and the effects of agricultural policies. The second is distance – both physical and social. Cooperation and exchange of experience among organic farmers was frequent on the mainland side, while isolation and lack of interaction was more common for the island farmers. Third, the role of the agricultural advisory service and the existence of champion farmers are important: pioneer farmers on the mainland have been supported by committed agricultural advisors, while lack of organic champion farmers and low priority granted to organic farming among agricultural advisors were found on the island. Marie-Louise Risgaard has an MSc within the field of organic agriculture. Her research interests are organic farming and rural development with the present occupation as innovative partner at a small-scale organic enterprise. In this capacity she is responsible for creating links between the organic enterprise, the gastronomic sector and organic markets, locally as well as nationally. Pia Frederiksen, PhD, is a geographer and senior scientist with research skills in rural development, sustainability, landscape analysis, and agri-environmental indicators. Pernille Kaltoft, PhD, is an environmental sociologist and senior scientist whose work focuses on organic farming and farmers’ perceptions. Dr. Kaltoft’s general research interests include values, perceptions, and views of nature related to agricultural and environmental issues.     

Traditional Mexican Agricultural Systems and the Potential Impacts of Transgenic Varieties on Maize Diversity

The discovery of transgenes in maize landraces in Mexico, a center of diversity for this crop, raises questions about the potential impact of transgene diffusion on maize diversity. The concept of diversity and farmers’ role in maintaining diversity is quite complex. Farmers’ behavior is expected to have a significant influence on causing transgenes to diffuse, to be expressed differently, and to accumulate within landraces. Farmers’ or consumers’ perceptions that transgenes are “contaminants” and that landraces containing transgenes are “contaminated” could cause these landraces to be rejected and trigger a direct loss of diversity. Mauricio R. Bellon is a human ecologist working in the Economics Program of the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) in Texcoco, Mexico. He received his MSc and PhD in ecology at the University of California, Davis. His current research includes projects that deal with on-farm conservation of maize, gene flow in traditional farming systems, and the impact of improved germplasm in the livelihoods of poor farmers. Julien Berthaud is a population geneticist working for the Institut de Recherche pour le Développement (IRD). He received his PhD in plant science at the University of Paris 11. His current research includes projects related with the dynamics of genetic diversity, especially in traditional maize farming systems.     

Farm Parents’ Views on their Children’s Labor on Family Farms: A Focus Group Study of Wisconsin Dairy Farmers

This study examines parents’ perspectives on their children working on their family dairy farms in Wisconsin. The objective of this focus group study is (1) to gain insights on why children work on their family farms, (2) to identify those benefits that parents perceive that they and their children gain from their children working on-farm, (3) to determine the concerns that parents have about their children working, (4) to identify ways to improve the safety of children on family farms, and (5) to understand how US agricultural policy impacts family decisions to use their children’s labor on their farms. The two focus groups reveal that fathers and mothers have different concerns and different perceptions regarding the benefits gained from having their children work on farms. The findings suggest that in response to US agricultural policy, parents are increasingly reliant upon their children’s labor. Children work the longest hours on economically stressed farms. Lydia Zepeda is a fellow of the Center for World Affairs and the Global Economy and professor of Consumer Science at the University of Wisconsin-Madison. She earned her MS and PhD in Agricultural Economics at the University of California at Davis. Her research interests include agricultural technology adoption, risk perceptions, household decision-making, and consumer food demand. Jongsoog Kim is a research fellow at Korea Women’s Development Institute in Seoul, Korea. She earned her PhD in Human Ecology at the University of Wisconsin-Madison. Her research interests include gender economics, labor supply of women and children, intrahousehold resource allocation, and consumer policies.     

Against the neoliberal steamroller? The Biosafety Protocol and the social regulation of agricultural biotechnologies

Through a discursive and organizational analysis we seek to understand the Biosafety Protocol and the place of socioeconomic regulation of agricultural biotechnology in it. The literature on the Protocol has been fairly extensive, but little of it has explored debates over socioeconomic regulation during the negotiation process or the regulatory requirements specified in the final document. This case is especially important at a time when the spread of neoliberalism is increasingly associated with deregulation, because it sheds light on the conditions under which circumvention of the market is deemed legitimate and socio-economic regulation of agricultural technology is possible. Daniel Lee Kleinman is a professor in the Department of Rural Sociology at the University of Wisconsin, Madison, where he is also affiliated with the Holtz Center for Science and Technology Studies and the Integrated Liberal Studies Program. He is the author and editor of a number of books, including Impure Cultures: University Biology and the World of Commerce (2003). Abby J. Kinchy is a PhD candidate in the Departments of Sociology and Rural Sociology at the University of Wisconsin, Madison. Her current research examines the controversies surrounding the genetic “contamination” of Mexican maize and Canadian canola.     

Learning in context through conflict and alignment: Farmers and scientists in search of sustainable agriculture

This article analyzes learning in context through the prism of a sustainable dairy-farming project. The research was performed within a nutrient management project that involved the participation of farmers and scientists. Differences between heterogeneous forms of farmers knowledge and scientific knowledge were discursively constructed during conflict and subsequent alignment over the validity and relevance of knowledge. Both conflict and alignment appeared to be essential for learning in context. Conflict spurred learning when disagreeing groups of actors developed their knowledge in order to strengthen their arguments. Conflict caused self-referentiality when the actors no longer listened to each other. This inhibited self-reflection, thus blocking ongoing learning. Nevertheless, after a period of alignment, scientific models and knowledge of farmers were reevaluated and recontextualized. Through determining how to use scientific models and farmers knowledge for further learning, aimed at a shared goal, the participating actors also learned how to learn.Jasper Eshuis is a PhD candidate in the Department of Communication Management at Wageningen University, The Netherlands. His research deals with multiple land use, governance processes, and farmers decision-making. He is currently interested in monitoring and trust.Marian Stuiver is a PhD candidate in the Department of Rural Sociology of Wageningen University, The Netherlands. Her current research focuses on nutrient management, farmers innovation, and co-production of knowledge within the agricultural sciences.     

Contextualizing farmers’ attitudes towards genetically modified crops

Analyses of the role of technological development in agriculture are central to an understanding of social change in agri-food systems. The objective of this paper is to contribute to the formation of a broader perspective of how farmers are positioning themselves with respect to controversial agricultural technologies through an empirical analysis of Washington State farmers’ willingness or unwillingness to try Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs) technology on their farms. The use of this type of biotechnology in farming has been criticized for its potential harmful effects on natural environments and socio-cultural systems, while proponents highlight the possibilities for increasing production with minimal use of other inputs. An analysis of the extent of farmers’ expressed willingness to use GMOs provides an opportunity to better understand how their diverse thoughts about controversial agricultural technologies are shaped not only by their own experiences but also by social context. The present study does this by analyzing data from a farm survey conducted on a random sample of farmers from across Washington State. The results show that the production practices farmers utilize and the market strategies they employ may be at least as useful as farmers’ socio-economic characteristics in explaining what types of farmers appear to be more or less interested in potentially using this technology. Furthermore, the relationship between level of formal education and willingness to use GMOs is not straightforward. It may hide differences between farmers with respect to where and how they received their formal education as well as the type(s) of knowledge they gained. It is argued that future research should recognize the diversity that exists in farmers’ interests vis-á-vis particular technologies and should also explore how these interests are shaped by farmers’ past and present social networks and life experiences. Kazumi Kondoh is a PhD candidate in the Department of Sociology at Washington State University. Her research interests include environmental policies, science and technology, and sustainable agriculture. Raymond Jussaume is an Professor and Chair, Community and Rural Sociology at Washington State University. His primary areas of interest are sociology of agriculture, development sociology, and political sociology.     

Identifying and ranking attributes that determine sustainability in Dutch dairy farming

Recent developments in agriculture have stirred up interest in the concept of sustainable farming systems. Still it is difficult to determine the extent to which certain agricultural practices can be considered sustainable or not. Aiming at identifying the necessary attributes with respect to sustainability in Dutch dairy farming in the beginning of the third millennium, we first compiled a list of attributes referring to all farming activities with their related side effects with respect to economic, internal social, external social, and ecological sustainability. A wide range of people (i.e., experts and stakeholders) were consulted to contribute to our list of attributes. Our consultation showed that only one attribute was selected for economic and internal social sustainability: profitability and working conditions, respectively. The list for external social sustainability contained 19 attributes and the list for ecological sustainability contained 15 attributes. To assess their relative importance, the same experts and stakeholders ranked the attributes for external social and ecological sustainability by using a questionnaire. The most important attributes for external social sustainability were food safety, animal health, animal welfare, landscape quality, and cattle grazing. For ecological sustainability they were eutrophication, groundwater pollution, dehydration of the soil, acidification, and biodiversity. The present method for identifying and ranking attributes is universal and, therefore, can be used for other agricultural sectors, for other countries, and for other time periods.Klaas Jan van Calker is a Researcher at the Animal Sciences Group and is doing his PhD research on sustainability of different dairy farming systems in cooperation with Business Economics of Wageningen University.Paul Berentsen is a Lecturer and Researcher at Business Economics, Wageningen University.Gerard Giesen is a Lecturer and Researcher at Business Economics, Wageningen University.Ruud Huirneis the general director of the Animal Sciences Group, and Professor of Farm Management, Wageningen University.     

Bringing Southeast Asia to the Southeast United States: New forms of alternative agriculture in Homestead,Florida

Immigrant farmers from Southeast Asia have brought knowledge of tropical fruit and vegetable production from their home countries to Homestead, Florida. They have developed a new style of farming, one that most closely resembles agricultural systems described as “homegardens.” Although biodiverse agricultural systems are generally thought to be commercially unviable, homegarden farmers successfully manage crop diversity as an economic strategy. By focusing on growing a mixture of specialty Southeast Asian herbs, fruits, and vegetables, the farmers have created their own economic niche and have shielded themselves from the competition of high-volume, single commodity producers. This paper shows that the Homestead homegardens constitute an alternative form of agriculture that is defined by their agroecological and socioeconomic attributes. It also shows that although the homegarden farms are a form of “alternative agriculture,” they do not operate outside of conventional, global systems of agricultural trade; rather the homegarden farms are embedded in global agriculture. The Homestead case problematizes the tendency to delineate between the global and local scales, and alternative and conventional sectors in agriculture today. This paper concludes that the emergence of the Homestead homegardens can only be understood by taking a place-based approach to studying the environment in which the homegardens are situated as well as identifying the large-scale influences on Miami-Dade County. Valerie Imbruce holds a PhD in plant sciences from a joint program between the Graduate Center of the City University of New York and the New York Botanical Garden. She has conducted research on global agricultural systems in New York City, south Florida, and Central Honduras.     

Building Community Capacity through Enhanced Collaboration in the Farmers Market Nutrition Program

The Farmers Market Nutrition Program (FMNP) is a federal-state partnership designed to provide fresh, locally grown produce to low-income participants at nutritional risk and expand consumer awareness and use of local produce sold at farmers markets. This paper describes the results of a collaboration initiative based on the typology of a “comprehensive, multisectorial collaboration” to support the FMNP. We report the outcomes of the partnerships that developed over three years, including increased outreach to FMNP participants and strategies to decrease barriers to participation. Those partnerships that reached higher degrees of coordination or collaboration are now addressing market accessibility and market quality in new ways. Those partnerships that exhibited the highest degree of collaboration are contributing to community capacity building beyond FMNP issues per se and to larger issues affecting the agriculture community and the food security of residents. Jamie S. Dollahite, PhD, RD, is an associate professor of Community Nutrition. She leads the Food and Nutrition Education in Communities programs, including Cornell Cooperative Extension’s role in the Farmers Market Nutrition Program, which provide outreach to and conduct research with limited resource audiences across New York State. Janet A. Nelson, MS Ed, is an Extension associate in Community Nutrition. Since 1999 she has coordinated Cornell Cooperative Extension’s role in the New York State Farmers Market Nutrition Program. For the preceding five years, Janet was Rural and Community Nutrition Educator for Cornell Cooperative Extension of Oswego County where she facilitated Extension’s relationship with the NYS-FMNP at the county level. Edward A. Frongillo, PhD, is an associate professor of Community and International Nutrition. His work includes the evaluation of program enhancements for the Farmers Market Nutrition Program, as well as studying the impact of nutrition programs for elders on food security, dietary intake, and nutritional status. Matthew Griffin, MS, is the Nutrition Resource Manager at the Food Bank of the Southern Tier, Elmira, New York where he coordinates nutrition, food safety, and community food security programs in connection with emergency food relief organizations.     

The In Situ Conservation of Rice Plant Genetic Diversity: A Case Study from a Philippine Barangay

The conservation of rice plant genetic diversity is particularly important for resource-poor farmers in economically marginal areas of the Philippines. This paper discusses the state of rice plant genetic diversity in the Philippines and the reasons behind the decrease in diversity witnessed over the last 30 years. A case study describes the in situ management of rice plant genetic diversity by resource-poor farmers from the Philippine island of Bohol, throughout the traditional, green revolution, and post-green revolution periods. This analysis demonstrates that farmers tend to favor genetically heterogeneous varieties that adapt to varied environments. The case study also reviews an NGO-sponsored agricultural biodiversity project that demonstrates that rice plant genetic diversity can be increased by empowering farmers – providing them with access to varieties, knowledge of varietal trials, varietal selection, and varietal breeding, as well as increasing the linkages they have with other farmers and institutions. David Carpenter is a PhD candidate in the School of Resources, Environment and Society at the Australian National University. His current research focuses on organic rice farming, social capital, and agricultural change in the Philippines. He recently published an article in Agriculture and Human Values 20(2) on the transition from high input agriculture to organic agriculture by resource-poor farmers from the Philippine Island of Bohol.     

Social-ethical issues concerning the control strategy of animal diseases in the European Union: A survey

In 2004 a survey was conducted in the member states of the European Union designed to gain greater insight into the views on control strategies for foot and mouth disease, classical swine fever, and avian influenza with respect to the epidemiological, economic and social-ethical consequences of each of these animal diseases. This article presents the results of the social-ethical survey. A selection of stakeholders from each member state was asked to prioritize issues for the prevention and control of these diseases. A majority of stakeholders chose preventive measures as the preferred issue. An analysis was done to determine whether there were differences in views expressed by stakeholders from member states with a history of recent epidemics and ones without such a history, and whether there were regional differences. There were no differences between member states with or without a history of recent epidemics. There were indeed regional differences between the priority orders from Northern and Southern Europe on the one hand, and from Eastern Europe on the other. Nina E. Cohen is a biologist and is a researcher at the Wageningen University. She is specialized in societal and ethical issues in human–animal relationships. Her current research is focused on the social-ethical issues concerning the prevention and control of foot and mouth disease, classical swine fever and avian influenza. Marcel A.P.M. van Asseldonk has studied animal science. Currently he works at the Institute for Risk Management in Agriculture (IRMA) of the Wageningen University. He is specialized in the design and pricing of insurance policies and animal health funds for the main livestock epidemics. Elsbeth N. Stassen is a veterinarian and professor of Animals and Society at the Wageningen University. Elsbeth Stassen is specialized in animal health, animal welfare and human–animal relationships. She was a member of a governmental welfare committee during the avian influenza epidemic in the Netherlands in 2003.     

Local agro-ecological knowledge and its relationship to farmers’ pest management decision making in rural Honduras

Integrated pest management (IPM) has been widely promoted in the developing world, but in many regions its adoption rates have been variable. Experience has shown that to ensure IPM adoption, the complexities of local agro-production systems and context-specific folk knowledge need to be appreciated. Our research explored the linkages between farmer knowledge, pest management decision making, and ecological attributes of subsistence maize agriculture. We report a case study from four rural communities in the highlands of southeast Honduras. Communities were typified by their agro-environments, IPM training history, and levels of infestation by a key maize pest, the fall armyworm (Spodoptera frugiperda Smith). Although variable, infestation levels generally did not justify pest management intervention. Consequently, crop losses from this pest were considered of low importance and most farmers proceeded in a rational fashion by refraining from action in their fields. Farmers attributed the low degree of pest infestation predominantly to abiotic causal factors (rainfall, temperature). The role of natural enemies in controlling this pest (i.e., biological control) was deemed of low importance by farmers; nevertheless, a broad array of such organisms was mentioned by farmers as operating in their maize crop. Farmers’ knowledge of natural enemies only partially matched scientific knowledge and was associated with the ecological features of their respective field settings. Local knowledge about natural enemies was mainly restricted to abundant and easily observable predatory species. Farmers who were knowledgeable about biological control were also familiar with a larger variety of pest management alternatives than uninformed farmers. Management options covered a wide range of curative techniques, including conservation biological control. Farmers who relied on insecticides to manage pest outbreaks knew less about biological control and pesticide alternatives. In contrast, farmers who received IPM training mentioned more types of natural enemies and were familiar with a broader range of alternative pest management tactics. Our research suggests that IPM training modifies local knowledge to better fit its environmental context. This paper provides insights in the environmental context of local agro-ecological knowledge and its linkage with pest management decision making. It also constitutes a basis for modifying IPM extension programs to deliver locality-specific technologies while strengthening the local knowledge base. Kris A. G. Wyckhuys is a Belgian bio-science engineer and entomologist currently employed as postdoctoral researcher at the University of Minnesota. For his PhD research at Purdue University he quantified social and ecological contributions to farmers’ adoption of insect pest management technologies in Honduran subsistence maize. He has a keen interest in the ecological facets of IPM and biological control, as well as in technological innovation in smallholder production systems, ethno-entomology and traditional pest management. Robert J. O’Neil is a Professor of Entomology specializing in biological control, predator–prey dynamics, and implementing biological control in IPM systems. His current work focuses on the ecology and management of the soybean aphid, Aphis glycines Matsumura, an invasive pest of soybeans in North America.     

Eliciting indigenous knowledge on tree fodder among Maasai pastoralists via a multi-method sequencing approach

Although the potential of indigenous knowledge in sustainable natural resource management has been recognized, methods of gathering and utilizing it effectively are still being developed and tested. This paper focuses on various methods used in gathering knowledge on the use and management of tree fodder resources among the Maasai community of Kenya. The methods used were (1) a household survey to collect socio-economic data and identify key topics and informants for the subsequent knowledge elicitation phase; (2) semi-structured interviews using key informants to gather in-depth information; (3) tree inventory to collect quantitative data on the ecological status of trees and shrubs on rangelands; and (4) group consensus method to countercheck information elicited from key informants. Study results obtained show that the use of multiple methods in an appropriate sequence is an effective way of building upon the information elicited from each stage. It also facilitates the collection of different types of data and knowledge allowing a measure of triangulation, which can be used to confirm the validity and consistency of indigenous knowledge. Multiple methods also allow the collection of more knowledge than can be obtained if only one method is used. Therefore, it is recommended that future studies on indigenous knowledge systems use multiple methods that combine both individual and group interviews in order to obtain more complete and accurate information. Evelyne Kiptot, a research scientist with the Kenya Forestry Research Institute, is based at Muguga Regional Research Centre but is currently a PhD student in the Technology and Agrarian Development (TAD) chair group at Wageningen University in the Netherlands. Her current research activities focus on indigenous knowledge systems in pastoral areas, participatory approaches, and upscaling.     

Sustainability and multifunctionality in French farms: Analysis of the implementation of Territorial Farming Contracts

Sustainable agriculture and ways to achieve it are important issues for agricultural policy. However, the concept of sustainability has yet to be made operational in many agricultural situations, and only a few studies so far have addressed the implementation process of sustainable agriculture. This paper provides an assessment of the Territorial Farming Contracts (TFC) – the French model for implementing sustainable agriculture – and aims to give some insights into the ways to facilitate the development of sustainable farming. Using a systems approach, the founding concept of the TFC model, an analysis has been made of the TFCs signed in the Midi-Pyrenees Region in south-western France. The results show that the first aspect of sustainability apparent in farmers’ projects referred to economic objectives. The environmental and social aspects were not foremost in the farming changes undertaken. In addition, the territorial dimension of the TFC was under-addressed. The majority of TFCs reveal a moderate or even low convergence with territorial priorities. These results are explained partly by the dominance of professional farming organizations in the implementation of TFC, and they imply that the organizational social dimensions of sustainability must not be neglected. Mohamed Gafsi is an assistant professor of farm management at the National School of Agronomic Training. He received his PhD in management science at the University of Bourgogne. His research interests include farm management and protection of natural resources, corporate environmental management, sustainable agriculture, and African family farms. Geneviève Nguyen is assistant professor in rural economics at the National Polytechnique Institute – National Superior School of Agronomy, in Toulouse. Her research interests include the dynamics of agrarian institutions in uncertain economies, the supply and organization of services in remote rural areas. Her research has been carried out in Europe, Africa, and Asia. She received her MA in Economics and her PhD in Agricultural Economics from the Ohio State University. Bruno Legagneux is assistant professor of farm management at the National Polytechnique Institute – National Superior School of Agronomy, in Toulouse. His research interests include farm management and the entry of young farmers into farming. Patrice Robin is an engineer agronomist. He received his diploma from the National Superior School of Agronomy, in Montpellier. He is currently a doctoral candidate at the University of Toulouse. His research interests include agriculture and rural development, environmental issues, and food quality.