Effects of selection cutting on the forest structure and species diversity of evergreen broa-leaved forest in northern Fujian, southern China

The short-term effects of selection cutting of different intensities on the forest structure and species diversity of evergreen broad-leaved forest in northern Fujian Province were investigated and analyzed. The results showed that selection cutting of low and medium intensities caused little variation in the forest structure. After cutting, the dominant species retained their leading status in the community. However, the community structure changed significantly following selection cutting of high and extra-high intensities; the status of the dominant species of the community declined dramatically. Some tree species began to disappear from the sampling plots. Except for extra-high intensity cutting, the diversity of tree species did not change significantly for the other three cutting intensities. However, the evenness of the stands was very different among the four kinds of cutting plots. For low and medium intensity selection cutting, the evenness declined slightly. For extra-high intensity selection cutting, the evenness increased to some extent, which might be due to a more even distribution of tree species after cutting. Cutting operations resulted in some adverse reactions to development of arborous species diversity of evergreen broad-leaved forest, particularly serious damage to the forest canopy. But the rational selection cuttings, which may benefit the restoration and maintenance of species diversity over a long period and may come about from the variations in environmental factors such as sunlight, temperature and humidity.     

Effect of land-use on small mammal abundance and diversity in a forest–farmland mosaic landscape in south-eastern Norway

During the last century the boreal forests of south-eastern Norway have been converted into patchworks of agricultural areas, clear-cuts and even-aged conifer monocultures. Even though Scandinavian forest ecosystems are strongly influenced by small mammals’ dynamics, the effects of anthropogenic changes on these communities are still debated. We conducted an extensive capture–mark–recapture study to examine the relative abundance and distribution of 11 species of small mammals during the reproductive season with respect to all available landscape-scale habitat types and fine-scale vegetation characteristics.     

Variation in biomass expansion factors for China’s forests in relation to forest type, climate, and stand development

? Context

Biomass expansion factors (BEFs, defined as the ratios of tree component biomass (branch, leaf, aboveground section, root, and whole) to stem biomass) are important parameters for quantifying forest biomass and carbon stock. However, little information is available about possible causes of the variability in BEFs at large scales.

? Aims

We examined whether and how BEFs vary with forest types, climate (mean annual temperature, MAT; mean annual precipitation, MAP), and stand development (stand age and size) at the national scale for China.

? Method

Using our compiled biomass dataset, we calculated values for BEFs and explored their relationships to forest types, climate, and stand development.

? Results

BEFs varied greatly across forest types and functional groups. They were significantly related to climate and stand development (especially tree height). However, the relationships between BEFs and MAT and MAP were generally different in deciduous forests and evergreen forests, and BEF–climate relationships were weaker in deciduous forests than in evergreen forests and pine forests.

? Conclusion

To reduce uncertainties induced by BEFs in estimates of forest biomass and carbon stock, values for BEFs should be applied for a specified forest, and BEF functions with influencing factors (e.g., tree height and climate) should be developed as predictor variables for the specified forest.     

Is it necessary to change the number of samples for different forest types when evaluating plant species richness? A case study in a forested landscape in central Japan

We demonstrate a method for evaluating the appropriate number of samples required to estimate plant species richness in different forest types within a forested landscape. In each of 36 plots (0.1 ha each) from 5 forest types (deciduous broad-leaved secondary forest and 4 categories of coniferous plantation classified according to stand age) in central Japan, 40 quadrats of 1 × 1 m were set in a regular pattern; the total number of quadrats in each forest type ranged from 200 to 400. In each plot, the number of observed species in 40 quadrats ranged from 60 to 80% of the number of species estimated by the rarefaction method for each forest type. Sampling 30 quadrats detected approximately 90% of the observed species in each plot that were detected using 40 quadrats. In specific functional groups (i.e., tall trees and weed species), the ratios of both tall trees and weed species to all species were at equilibrium for 30 or more quadrats. For fewer than 30 quadrats these ratios were highly variable. No significant differences were found among forest types in the ratio of the observed number of species in each plot to the estimated number of species calculated using the rarefaction method, and in sampling efficiency estimated by use of non-parametric estimators. We concluded that the number of samples does not need to be changed according to forest type or plantation stand age in the studied landscape, and that the method used to evaluate the number of samples could be useful.     

Climate change impacts on stand structure and competitive interactions in a southern Swedish spruce–beech forest

It is believed that European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) will increase its competitive ability at its northern range margin in Scandinavia due to climate change. In mixed old-growth forests of beech and Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) at Siggaboda nature reserve (southern Sweden), stand structure characteristics were sequentially recorded in the years 2004, 2005 and 2007 as well as growth in stem diameter using tree-coring analyses. Using these measurements, we studied the effects on stand dynamics of an extreme storm event (2005 “Gudrun” hurricane), drought and heat (mid-summer 2006, spring 2007) and subsequent bark beetle attacks on spruce (growing season 2007), overlaid with warming tendencies. The storm, which caused disastrous damage in many stands nearby, had comparatively little impact on the structure of the spruce–beech stand. All together, only 32 trees (19 spruces, 10 beeches, 3 other species) per hectare were thrown or broken mainly in the leeward direction (NE) or impacted by secondary damage by uprooted neighbour trees; this represents 7% of the total tree number and 11% of the growing stock. Diameter and height structure did not change significantly. However, the 2006 drought and the 2007 attack of biotic agents changed the stand structure and composition strongly due to the death of about 19% of the dominating older spruce trees that accounted for 35% of total stand volume. This resulted in a considerable increase in beech’s contribution to stem number (4% increase) and wood volume of the living stand (7% increase). A comparison of diameter growth of beech and spruce during the periods 1894–1949 and 1950–2005 showed a distinct decrease in growth superiority of spruce during the last 50 years. These results support the idea of a northward migration of European beech as a nemoral tree species in Sweden, due to a higher tolerance to the abiotic and biotic threats accompanying climate change and an increased competitive ability compared to boreal tree species Norway spruce.     

Mangrove structure,litter and macroalgal productivity in a northern‐most forest of Florida

Rhizophora mangle L. dominated 10 overwash islands within Tampa Bay forming the northernmost mangrove forests on the west coast of Florida. The mean number of trees and basal area were 5040 trees ha^-1 and 20.5m²ha^-1, respectively. Basal areas ranged from 1.1 (Avicennia germinans (L.) Stern), to 2.6m²ha^-1 (Laguncularia racemosa Gaertner), to 16.8 (R. mangle). Cockroach Bay mangroves are small (5.8–7.0m tall) versus coastal forests of south Florida and the Caribbean. Total litter production for a 12 month period was maximal in September for fringing (7.4gdwtm^-2d^-1) and interior (8.7gdwtm^-2d^-1) areas with the two zones not being significantly different. Average litter fall (3.1gdwtm^-2d^-1) was similar to more tropical Caribbean mangals. Leaves accounted for 68 of the litter and reproductive material for 6, being similar to tropical riverine and overwash marine angiosperm communities on the Mexican coast. Although mangrove forests in Tampa Bay are small in stature and experience cold damage and occasional frosts, their litter fall is similar in biomass to that of more tropical mangals. However, their reproductive output is low based on litter fall versus more tropical mangals suggesting that the northern extension is less than optimum. Macroalgal diversity was low (10 species) as compared to Caribbean mangals. Macroalgal turf (0.8gCm^-2d^-1) and epiphyte communities of A.germinans pneumatophores (2.7gCm^-2d^-1) have productivity levels that are equal to or greater than those of Caribbean mangals.     

Spatial connectivity and distribution of landscape type in the natural secondary forests of eastern mountainous region,northeast China—a case study of Mao'ershan region in Heilongjiang Province

Mao'ershan region is representative in the natural secondary forested region of the eastern mountainous region, northeast China. The landscape nearest neighbor index and landscape connectivity index were calculated with ARC/INFO software for Mao'ershan region. The spatial distribution of the landscape of the region was analyzed. The results showed that the landscape connectivity index of non-woodland was significantly higher than that of woodland. The landscape connectivity index of natural forest was nearly equal to zero, which means its fragmentation degree is high. The nearest neighbor index of plantation was lower than that of natural forest and non-forestland. Among the man-made forests, the distance index of the coniferous mixed plantation is the lowest, and its pattern is nearly glomeration. The landscape pattern of natural forest presented nearly random distribution. Among non-forest land, the distance index of cut blank was the lowest, and its pattern was also nearly glomeration. Foundation item: This paper was supported by the Key Project of State Department of Science Technology (2002BA515B040). Biography: LI SHu-juan (1977), female. Lecture in Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266003, P. R. China. Responsible editor: Zhu Hong     

Vegetation structure and regeneration status of the moist,evergreen, afromontane Bore–Anferara–Wadera forest in southern Ethiopia

In a survey of the Bore–Anferara–Wadera forest to study the vegetation structure and regeneration status of woody plant species, 112 quadrats were systematically sampled along altitudinal transects to collect vegetation data. Nested sample plots of 30 m × 30 m and 5 m × 5 m were laid for collecting data on abundance and some variables of tree and shrub size. The regeneration status of woody species was assessed by counting all seedlings within the main sample plot. Woody plant species taller than or equal to 3 m were counted and their height and DBH measured. Density, frequency, basal area and importance value(IV) of woody plant species were computed. A total of 136 vascular plant species belonging to119 genera and 63 families were recorded. The overall Shannon—Wiener diversity value was 3.84 and evenness was 0.78. Total density of trees and shrubs with DBH >2 cm was 1047 ha-1. Size class distribution of woody species across different DBH and height classes indicated a relatively high proportion of individuals at lower classes,suggesting impacts of past anthropogenic disturbances.Analysis of population structure and regeneration status of the forest revealed various patterns of population dynamics where some species were represented by only a few mature plants, suggesting that they are on the verge of local extinction and that immediate conservation measures should be taken. The results highlight the need for joint management and conservation measures by the government, local people and other stakeholders to abate the rapid rate of deforestation and promote sustainable utilization of the forest resources in this forest in southern Ethiopia.     

Habitat fragmentation and structure and composition of tree populations in a agroforestry landscape (southern Québec,Canada)

A number of forests in agroforestry environments are at risk due to urban development or agricultural expansion. These forests often consist of patches of wooded areas scattered in the agricultural and urban grid, and often constitute green corridors that enable a flow between animal and plant species (migration corridors). This study evaluates the composition and structure of riparian forests in agroforestry areas that are subject to various natural and anthropogenic disturbances. This study aims to understand the dynamics of these riparian forest populations and evaluate the effects of the disturbances on the tree stands (e.g. floods, partial cutting), while taking into account their development over space and time based on a diachronic assessment from 1945 to 2010. Although these woodlands are subject to various disturbances, a fairly large diversity of tree species can be noted, and the regeneration of the saplings and small trees follows a normal growth curve (asymmetric) with a high contingency of young tree population comparable to a typical reverse-J distribution. However, lower densities are observed for riparian stands subject to frequent flooding, which could over time compromise recruitment and forest regeneration for some tree species (e.g. woody plants with weak adaptive strategies). The multivariate analyses (Redundancy Analysis and Canonical Correspondence Analysis) conducted over all the soil, environmental and forest data reveal that some variables are more strongly related to the composition of the forest populations, including pH, ground litter and soil drainage. However, these variables must still be considered as being part of a set of interacting soil conditions. Lastly, the future of these woodlands may appear uncertain because there are no government policies or measures to ensure their protection and preservation.     

Analysis of temporal changes in land cover and landscape metrics of a managed forest in the west Black Sea region of northern Turkey: 1970–2010

Forest structure changes continuously by natural and anthropogenic effects. Because the level of goods and services provided by forest ecosystems are related to this structure, some attributes have to be controlled while they are being managed. In this paper we describe the long-term temporal changes in land area and landscape metrics related to different land uses of a managed forest in Turkey. The study was carried out for the Daday Forest Planning Unit located in the west Black Sea region of northern Turkey. The total area is 16,813 ha and besides wood production, it is managed for erosion control, public health, aesthetics, and recreation. Stand type maps that were constructed in 1970, 1989, 1999, and 2010 were used in this analysis. Transition matrixes that illustrate area changes among cover types and temporal changes on some landscape metrics were obtained using Geographic Information Systems. Stands were separated into small patches, and thus the number of patches increased nearly two-fold between 1970 and 2010. The total forest edge increased and through the associated fragmentation, the amount of core forest area decreased at the landscape scale. Landscape metrics were applied to digitized versions of historical maps to assess how forest area changed. Human use of the land has changed, forest management practices have evolved, and these along with natural forest growth have contributed to interesting changes in landscape character.     

Current distribution of older and deciduous forests as legacies from historical use patterns in a Swedish boreal landscape (1725–2007)

We combine historical maps and satellite derived data to reconstruct the development of a Swedish boreal landscape over the past 300 years. The aim is to understand legacies from past use patterns in present-day forest composition and consequences for conservation objectives from a landscape perspective. We analyze landscape development in cross-tabulation matrixes, building change trajectories. These trajectories are tested in linear models to explain the distribution of present-day landscape composition of coniferous, mixed, and deciduous forests >110 years. Of 49 tested change trajectories, 11 showed a significant association. Associations for mixed and coniferous forests were similar and linked to characteristics such as forest continuity, which characterized the studied landscape. Deciduous older forests did not show any association to forest continuity but were more likely to occur on areas that specifically shifted from forests with grazing in the 1720s to open impediment (likely indicating low tree coverage) in the 1850s. There were large shifts and spatial redistribution in ownerships over time. Use patterns and legacies varied between small- and large-scale ownership categories as well as within small-scale categories. The legacies found in the study indicate a complex origin of heterogeneous landscape elements such as older deciduous forests. Additionally, the origin of the legacies indicates a potential need to diversify conservation management based on the influence of past use patterns. Despite large inconsistencies in historical and contemporary data we argue that this type of analysis could be used to further understand the distribution of landscape elements important for conservation objectives.     

Evaluating the deployment of alternative species in planted conifer forests as a means of adaptation to climate change—case studies in New Zealand and Scotland

Context

A strategy widely proposed for increasing the resilience of forests against the impacts of projected climate change is to increase the number of species planted to spread and reduce the risks from a range of biotic and abiotic hazards.

Aims

We tested this strategy in two case study areas in planted conifer forests in New Zealand and Scotland.

Methods

The performance of the major tree species and an alternative was compared: radiata pine and Eucalyptus fastigata in New Zealand and Sitka spruce and Scots pine in Scotland. The process-based model 3-PG2S was used to simulate the effects of projected climate change at the end of this century, with and without CO₂ fertilisation, upon productivity and financial returns. The effects of an abiotic hazard and two biotic hazards were considered.

Results

Under the current climate, the major species outperform alternatives in nearly all circumstances. However, with climate change, their relative performance alters. In New Zealand, planting of E. fastigata becomes more attractive particularly when various hazards and elevated CO₂ concentrations are considered. In Scotland, Scots pine becomes more attractive than Sitka spruce at lower interest rates.

Conclusions

The major plantation species in both countries are well suited to the current climate, but deployment of alternative species and/or breeds can help to adapt these planted forests to the impacts of climate change.     

Basal area growth rates of five major species in a Pinus–Cunninghamia forest in eastern China affected by asymmetric competition and spatial autocorrelation

We analyzed basal area (BA) growth using growth data obtained from permanent plots over 4 years for five major tree species in Anhui Province, eastern China. The studied species were dominant conifers (Pinus massoniana and Cunninghamia lanceolata) and co-dominant broad-leaved species (Castanopsis eyrei, Castanopsis sclerophylla, and Loropetalum chinense). A hierarchical Bayesian approach was used to estimate species-specific parameters and to quantify a spatially autocorrelated random effect. We selected a model that included only the following relevant predictor variables: initial size, asymmetric competition, spatially autocorrelated random effect, and random effect associated with plots. For all species analyzed, the model accounted for significant proportions of the variation (R ² = 70–98 %) in BA growth rates. The initial slope of the relationship between BA growth rate and the initial BA tended to be steeper for P. massoniana than for C. lanceolata. The BA growth rate increased from an initial low value and then leveled off, with a lower maximum BA growth rate for C. lanceolata than for P. massoniana. The BA growth rate of P. massoniana was significantly affected by asymmetric competition with neighbors. The results of our analyses were used to predict to what extent thinning neighboring trees at different intensities would reduce competition impacts on BA growth of P. massoniana and C. lanceolata. Our results also helped to clarify the ecological characteristics of the species analyzed, as well as the spatial distribution of unknown factors influencing tree growth.     

Effects of wood species,particle sizes and dimensions of residue obtained from trimming of wood–cement composites on physical and mechanical properties of cement-bonded particleboard

Abstract

The present work was conducted to study the effects of wood species, particle size and residue particle size obtained from trimming of wood–cement composites on physical and mechanical properties of cement-bonded particleboard (CBPB). Particleboard was manufactured with a wood/cement ratio of 1:3 and specific gravity 1200 kg m^?3. After manufacturing, the boards were tested. The second order plan was used to test the significant difference between factors and levels. It was shown that slenderness and compaction ratio increased and bulk density and specific surface decreased with the increase of particle size. With the increase in slenderness ratio and compaction ratio and decrease in bulk density and specific surface, thickness swelling and mechanical properties improved, but water absorption by the board increased. The addition of 6% of 5/3 fraction size of particle obtained from trimming of boards improved significantly the properties of the boards. The optimized panel properties, obtained using poplar particles with a fraction size of 7pass/on5, exceeded the BISON type HZ and EN Standard for Wood Particleboard. CBPB made of alder or poplar particles with 5/3 fraction size of residue exceeded the BISON type HZ. All CBPB with 5/3 fraction size of residue showed lower mean values of thickness swelling, well below the maximum requirements of both standards. In addition, wood species, fraction size of particles and residue size are believed to have been the main cause of change in the properties of the boards.     

The larger,the better? Effects of delayed diameter-limit cutting on old-growth attributes and saproxylic beetle diversity in temperate oak forests

Intensive management implies harvesting large, old trees, which reduces the old-growth attributes. This negatively affects biodiversity, especially saproxylic beetles. In managed temperate oak forests, rotation extension induced by increasing the diameter threshold of final harvest by about 10 cm compared to conventional practices (i.e. DBH around 70 cm) might mitigate this negative effect. Here, we used a gradient of the proportion of overmature trees (DBH?≥?80 cm) among mature trees (DBH?≥?70 cm) across plots of high oak French forests to test the potential effect of increasing diameter threshold on (1) structural features and (2) species composition and diversity of saproxylic beetles communities. We assessed deadwood and microhabitats availability (i.e. volume/density and diversity) and canopy openness in 81 1-ha plots across eleven French forests. Results highlighted that a larger proportion of overmature trees, for a given density of mature trees, had limited effects on structural features: only cavities density showed a significant positive response, with no cascading effect on cavicolous beetles. Moreover, the proportion of overmature trees had no significant effect on the composition of saproxylic beetles communities (and ecological variables altogether explained only 17% of the composition inertia). By contrast, mature tree density enhanced microhabitat density and indirectly increased the abundance of rare species. Thus, shifting DBH from 70 to 80 cm in high oak forest could have no or limited effect on saproxylic beetles conservation. Improved strategies might rather stem from combining (1) longer rotation extension and (2) less intensive management practices in extended rotation stands.     

Effects of pocket gophers,bracken fern,and western coneflower on planted conifers in northern Idaho – an update and two more species

Grand Fir Mosaic forests innorthern Idaho are difficult to regenerate afternatural or human-caused disturbances. Sparseconifer regeneration appears to be associated withhigh populations of northern pocket gophers (Thomomys talpoides) plus expansion by bracken fern(Pteridium aquilinum (L.) Kuhn) and invasionof western coneflower (Rudbeckia occidentalisNutt.). This report updates an earlier study(Ferguson and Adams 1994) that quantified theeffects of four treatments on survival and growth ofplanted conifers: unweeded with gophers, weeded withgophers, unweeded without gophers, and weededwithout gophers. Weeding removed only bracken fernand western coneflower. Subalpine fir (Abieslasiocarpa (Hook.) Nutt.), grand fir (Abiesgrandis (Dougl.) Lindl.), and western larch (Larix occidentalis Nutt.) had over 80% mortalityfrom pocket gophers and other causes. Lodgepolepine (Pinus contorta var. latifoliaEngelm.) had 49.2% mortality from pocket gophersand 6.8% mortality from other causes, but snowdamage is a problem for lodgepole pine. Engelmannspruce (Picea engelmannii Parry ex Engelm.)had 42.2% gopher-caused mortality and 8.4%mortality from other causes. Spruce suffered littletop damage from snowpacks and was stout enough towithstand senescing bracken fern fronds. Westernwhite pine (Pinus monticola Dougl.) had only24.1% mortality from pocket gophers after 4 years,and only 11.8% of the white pine died from causesother than gophers. Of the mortality caused bypocket gophers, 76.8% occurred the first summer andnext two winters after planting. The recommendedspecies for reforestation are Engelmann spruce andwhite pine.     

Impacts of traditional agroforestry practices,altitudinal gradients and households’ wealth status on perennial plants species composition,diversity, and structure in south-central Ethiopia

Agroforestry Systems - Conspicuous trees and other perennial plants in smallholders’ farms have been acknowledged for their biodiversity conservation values. Impacts of agroforestry...     

Effects of variable retention logging in the boreal forest on the bumble bee-influenced pollination community,evaluated 8–9 years post-logging

Boreal forests are currently facing intensified logging pressures, yet we know little about impacts of logging on the pollination community. This study extends research done immediately before and after logging, to consider its longer term effects. We censused bumble bee and flower communities 8–9 years after experimental variable retention logging. Harvest treatments left 0%, 10–20%, 50–75%, or 100% of the original trees after logging. Total bumble bee and floral abundances were increased by all forms of logging; however the floral community in retention cuts (i.e., 10–20% and 50–75% of trees remaining) was more similar to undisturbed controls than was the community in clearcuts. Bumble bees in low-retention treatments (i.e. 10–20%) were in an ideal free distribution (IFD) with their floral resources, which allows for equal per-flower rate of visitation, regardless of local flower density. In clearcuts (i.e. 0%) and high-retention areas (i.e. 50–75%) bees were at an IFD with respect to the density of their floral resources, but undermatched (in 50–75% treatments) or were resource-independent (in 0% treatments) with respect to the energetic value of their floral resources. Bees in unlogged forest controls (i.e., 100%) deviated from an IFD by undermatching. Overall, low-retention logging (10–20%) was an improvement over clearcutting, because there was less change to the floral community, while still allowing for the achievement of an ideal free distribution. However, unlogged forest appeared to be negatively affected (in the lack of an IFD) by the presence of adjacent logged forests: numerical responses of bees to flowers were altered, with implications for bee foraging success and plant pollination service. Forest reserves should therefore incorporate buffer zones when adjacent to logged forest, to preserve the inter-relationships in their bee-influenced pollination community.     

Multiple disturbance patterns and population structure of a tropical tree species,Afzelia africana (Leguminosae–Caesalpinioideae), in two contrasting bioclimatic zones of the Republic of Benin

Understanding how multiple disturbances affect species population structure is crucial for designing a better conservation strategy of threatened species. In this paper, we assessed the disturbance patterns and evaluated their effects on the population structure of Afzelia africana, in two different bioclimatic zones of the Republic of Benin. The main disturbances in the studied area included branch pruning and debarking. Individuals of medium size (20–40 cm) were mostly pruned and debarked. The percentages of pruning and debarking were similar at population level across the two studied bioclimatic zones (t = ?0.04, p = 0.96; t = 0.73, p = 0.48). Examining this at individual level, pruning was similar but debarking was higher in the Sudanian zone (12.14 ± 0.93%) than in the Sudano-Guinean zone (7.44 ± 0.88) (W = 40859, p < 0.001). Population structure was bell-shaped in the Sudanian zone regardless of the disturbance level. In contrast, in the Sudano-Guinean zone, mildly disturbed populations showed an inverse J-shaped structure, whereas those highly disturbed were bell-shaped. This underlined the climatic (dryness) and disturbance effects on the establishment and recruitment of small trees into the next life stage in tropical savanna ecosystems. Good regeneration pattern and the largest individuals were found within the protected areas, demonstrating the prominent role of protected areas for the species conservation. Therefore, we suggested that conservation efforts should be extended to populations outside the protected areas. Forestry department should establish firebreaks networks to protect small individuals and facilitate their recruitment, as well as the regulation and enforcement should be improved on the sustainable use of the species.