To Join Small-Scale Forest Owners’ Associations or Not? Motivations and Opinions of Small-Scale Forest Owners in Three Selected Regions of the Czech Republic

This article analyses motivations and attitudes of small-scale forest owners in the Czech Republic towards joining associations. The research is a follow-up to a field investigation performed within the National Forest Programme II for 2007–2013 in the Vyso?ina region in 2010. The present research was carried out in the Pilsen region in 2012 and the Central Bohemia region in 2015, applying the same method of investigation as in 2010—a questionnaire survey. The findings are based on the results of all three surveys and supported by the analysis of legal and forestry-related documents concerning financial subsidies for forest owners’ associations. The study has revealed reluctance of small-scale owners to join associations. Their lack of motivation is caused by insufficient funding from the government supporting the administration and management of associations. The reluctance also results from the request for associations to be legal entities, which most applicants do not meet as they are either not registered or are registered under unsuitable legal forms. Between 2011 and 2013, no contributions were paid by the government to associations, and no new small-scale forest owners’ associations were formed. To increase associations, we propose that the government should provide sufficient funding not only for the administration and management of associations but also for the process of establishing associations and initial investments. It is also necessary to make major innovations in legislature regarding the transition of ownerships to more convenient legal forms.     

Do Forest Values Influence Compliance with Forestry Legislation? The Case of Farmers in the Fringes of Forest Reserves in Ghana

Forest values play an important role in forest management practices, and in the design and implementation of forest policy and the legal framework. This paper assesses the importance of farmers’ forest values and the potential associations between farmers’ forest values and their compliance with the tree-felling rule in Ghana. The results are derived from a survey with farmers, inhabiting fringes of forest reserves in the High Forest Zone of Ghana. With the exception of the forest value for future generations, forest values that contribute to immediate subsistence and livelihoods are perceived as the most important (i.e. environmental, subsistence and economic forest values). These values provide, among others, wide variety of foods, such as wild crops and bushmeat, farming land, medicinal plants, household items such as ropes, lianas and mats, firewood and shelter. Aesthetic and religion-related forest values are considered to be the least important. Multivariate binary logistic regression analysis suggests that farmers’ forest values may to some extent influence their compliance with the tree-felling rule. Economic, religion-related and learning forest values are likely to encourage compliance with the tree-felling rule.     

Consequences of an Improved Road Network in Rural Iran: Does it Lead to Better Livelihoods and Forest Protection?

Construction of new roads in rural areas is closely linked to market accessibility and economic growth. It also leads to exploitation of natural resources that may accelerate deforestation. These conflicting effects of an improved road network on rural development and depletion of forest resources present a serious challenge to policy makers interested in sustainable development. This paper investigates the effects of road networks on biological and socio-economic behaviour. The analysis was conducted by using a non-linear bio-economic model for a community in southern Zagros, Iran where they manage the adjoining forest according to traditional rules. Data for the model were obtained through village surveys and published resources. The model followed a holistic approach by incorporating a number of livelihood activities, such as, crop cultivation, goat husbandry, charcoal production and hiring out of community labour, along with several logical resource constraints. It was run over a period of 45 years. The results showed that new roads can either fuel forest degradation or contribute to forest protection depending on the choice of policy options. The study concludes that construction of new roads should be accompanied by policies aimed at higher state controls over newly accessible forest areas through regulatory measures, creation of new non-farm employment opportunities and strengthening of traditional institutions through providing extension services for local communities and facilitating NGO involvement so as to minimize the adverse effects on forest resources.     

The Accounting for Carbon Sequence and Oxygen Release of Forest Resources and the Case Study

The paper reviewed the references of carbon sequence and oxygen release of forest resources. The dynastic physical accounting model is established, and benefit transfer model is adopted to calculate willing to pay for carbon sequence and oxygen. Benghe Forestry Farm of Linyi Prefecture of Shandong Province is selected as the case study area, the accounting result is presented in the paper.     

How are Swedish Forest Owners’ Associations Adapting to the Needs of Current and Future Members and Their Organizations?

This paper examines how Swedish forest owners’ associations are adapting their strategies to fit the changing needs of current and future members, and assesses how this development affects the organizations’ profile and relationship with members. To explore this issue eight semi-structured, face-to-face interviews with chairmen and senior managers from three associations and the Federation of Swedish Family Forest Owners were performed. Results showed that associations have identified an increasing need for management-support activities among members due to their decreasing familiarity with the basics of forestry. Help is increasingly needed both for setting up goals and objectives for their forest ownership, and to practically manage their properties. The associations’ education programmes are also being improved and adapted to suit members’ varying understanding of forestry by the introduction of A-, B- and C-level courses. Education campaigns have proved to be a successful tool for affecting members’ management objectives. Further, the associations see an increasing need for political activity to counter calls for stricter management regulations being made by the media, politicians and environmental organizations and thereby protect members’ ownership rights. Initiatives within the organizations for more efficient governance processes and the professionalization of working procedures within the member organizations may, however, come to reduce individual member involvement in the associations. Members may thus increasingly come to act as customers of service in their interaction with the organizations.     

Rural Governance, Forestry, and the Promotion of Local Knowledge: The Case of the German Rural Development Program ‘Active Regions’

This article investigates the role of local knowledge in the policy approach of neo-endogenous rural development, which may be held by local and regional actors such as municipal and county level politicians, local and regional level administration, entrepreneurs as well as local third sector representatives. The main question addressed is whether local knowledge under this approach is merely mobilised or if rural development processes are even based on such knowledge, placing it at the centre of such policy. The relevance of this approach to forestry is also explored. The types of forest owners for which the neo-endogenous rural development approach is appropriate and the types that may have difficulties in coping with this cross-sectoral and area-based approach are especially examined. Using a case study design on the German Active Regions funding program it is shown that the neo-endogenous approach is most relevant to large private forest owners and small-scale corporate enterprises, but also has potential for small- and medium-sized private owners. Concerning the role of knowledge held by local and regional actors, the approach is shown to largely build on the use of local expertise, and hence policy acceptance increases. However, scientific knowledge as well as politics are found to play a major role in the use, production and interpretation of local knowledge.     

Can Rural Development Projects Generate Social Capital? A Case Study of Ricinodendron heudelotii Kernel Marketing in Cameroon

Social capital is an important pillar of farmers’ livelihoods and its importance for sustainable rural development has been recognised. Nevertheless, the creation of social capital through external interventions remains challenging. This study investigated the generation of social capital within a rural development project of the World Agroforestry Centre to promote Ricinodendron heudelotii (Baill) Pierre ex Pax. kernel commercialisation. Combining quantitative and qualitative measurement techniques, the change in social capital over a period of 5 years was evaluated. Households of project villages were compared to control households. Project households increased their social assets significantly at different levels. Development interventions thus enhanced social capital, this improvement was mutually reinforced by a positive change in other farmer livelihood assets, in particular financial capital. This study reveals the complexity of social capital generation through external intervention and its implications for farmer livelihoods specifically and development work in general.     

What rights and benefits? The implementation of participatory forest management in Kenya: The case of Eastern Mau Forest Reserve

The study espoused the access analytical framework to investigate how introduction of Participatory Forest Management (PFM) in Kenya has changed the various actors’ ability to benefit from the forest resources of Eastern Mau Forest Reserve. Data collected through key informant interviews, and a household survey showed that implementation of PFM has triggered new income opportunities for forest adjacent communities in seedling production and beekeeping. However, PFM bestowed no real decision-making powers to the established Community Forest Associations (CFAs) over important forest resources such as timber and firewood. Members of the local communities and other actors have continued to access these resources through various structural and relational means, in the same way as before the introduction of PFM. Further, it is documented that PFM has introduced additional burdens on the local communities, especially the poorest households, as a result of increased enforcement of rules. Based on these findings, it is suggested that the PFM policy in Kenya, in its current form, is unlikely to realize its dual objectives of forest conservation and livelihood enhancement. To attain them would require a further devolution of rights to the CFAs.     

Is the Use of a Non-timber Forest Resource Compatible with Environmental Conservation? The Case of Handicraft Production at the Cofre de Perote National Park,Mexico

In Mexico, a good number of national parks are home to local communities. It is therefore necessary to make forest conservation compatible with productive activities. Here we have evaluated the productive process of a group of women crafters and its ecological impact at the Cofre de Perote National Park (Veracruz, Mexico) where handicrafts are made with Pinus montezumae needles. The questions explored are: (1) What is the population structure of P. montezumae? (2) Is the production of handicrafts sustainable in terms of the natural productivity of needles? (3) Is the sale of handicrafts a competitive economic option compared to other productive activities in the region? (4) How much carbon is stored in the handicrafts, and to what extent is the intensity of forest fires reduced by the reduction of fuel? The height of P. montezumae individuals and their diameter at breast height were measured in randomly distributed plots of 10 × 10 m, and the production of needles recorded monthly for one year. The carbon content in the needles and trees was calculated through equations corresponding to the genus Pinus. It was concluded that the production of handicrafts is sustained by the natural production of pine needles (13,570.73 kg ha^?1 per year), and that the economic income compares favorably to the one obtained from other economic activities in the region. On the other hand, the use of needles for handicrafts represented a reduction of 0.15% of the total fuel production in one year and contributed to the storage of 10.91 kg of C per year. The expansion of this productive activity through the participation of more women would significantly increase fuel reduction and contribute to more carbon storage, while generating more income for more families in the community.     

Reprint of 'Are forest researchers only scientists? Case studies on the roles of researchers in Japanese and Swedish forest policy processes'

The aim of this study is to clarify the roles of researchers in forest policy development processes. Comparative case studies between Japan and Sweden were conducted. The research–integration–utilisation (RIU) model on scientific knowledge transfer was employed as a framework. Based on the RIU model, ‘scientist’, ‘integrator’, and ‘policy entrepreneur’ were defined as three hypothesised roles of researchers, discussed in conjunction with Pielke's ‘honest broker’ model. It was found that researchers played important roles, both as scientists and integrators in Japan. In Sweden, researchers played only the role of scientist. However, no researchers working as policy entrepreneurs were found in either country. These results indicate that the RIU model could work as a basis for the comparison between countries and the clarification of the roles of researchers in forest policy processes. The case study analysis also specified three additional topics for further discussion: (1) different types of science-based policy advice; (2) the relationship between power allies and consensus building; and (3) the reason why the roles of researchers differ between Japan and Sweden.     

What is hot in tree rings? The wood density of surviving Douglas-firs to the 2003 drought and heat wave

In a global warming scenario, drought and heat waves like the one that occurred in 2003 in Europe are expected to become more intense and frequent. This extreme climate event strongly affected the hydraulic balance in many forest tree species including Douglas-fir, with symptoms ranging from partial crown necrosis to death. We studied a French Douglas-fir provenance trial, strongly affected by the 2003 drought and heat wave. Using wood X-ray microdensity profiles as a record of cambium response to environmental variations, we compared mean stem density and growth between dead and alive neighbouring trees and several microdensity characters measured over 17 growth rings previous to 2003. Special attention has been given to the sampling layout in order to minimize the micro-environmental effects. At tree level, surviving trees have a significantly higher mean stem density. At tree ring level, they have a significantly higher mean ring density, maximum ring density, latewood density and, to a lesser extent, latewood proportion. No significant difference was found for diameter growth. These results could have direct implications in the way to study and predict possible acclimation and adaptation of forest trees to climate change process. Wood could be used for the selection of genotypes with a desirable plasticity and resistance to drought induced-cavitation.     

How to Organize a Large-Scale Ecological Restoration Program? The Framework Developed by the Atlantic Forest Restoration Pact in Brazil

Large-scale ecological restoration programs across the world have begun to extensively transform degraded lands into young native ecosystems. However, more projects like these will be necessary in the coming years to fulfill the goal of restoring 150 million ha established by United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity. Here, we present and discuss the steps required for and the lessons learned from the organization of a large-scale ecological restoration program in Brazil, the Atlantic Forest Restoration Pact. These lessons are organized around 9 steps: (a) the presentation of the motivations driving the promotion of large-scale restoration, (b) the organization of the main stakeholders, (c) the definition of goals, (d) the organization of a database, (e) the indication of both available and priority areas for restoration, (f) the proposal of science-based and field-validated methods, (g) the establishment of a monitoring protocol, (h) the proposal of a communication program to unite members and interact with society, and (i) the strategies for promoting the establishment of public policies conducive to restoration. This framework may provide a template to help other initiatives to mainstream isolated restoration projects into a large and well-organized movement, which may increase the chances of successful restoration in the future.     

The role of social and environmental attitudes in non-market valuation: An application to the Białowieża Forest

The purpose of this study is to investigate the impact of non-economic motivations such as altruism and environmental concerns on social preferences and hence willingness to pay (WTP) for changes in forest management strategies in the Białowieża Forest in Poland. We used data from a discrete choice experiment (CE) with attributes describing changes in the quality of the forest and recreation. The choice experiment technique makes it possible to disentangle the effect of the trait of altruism and environmental concern with regard to different attributes and their levels. Environmental attitudes were measured using the New Ecological Paradigm (NEP) scale, whereas the trait of altruism was determined using the Self-Reported Altruism (SRA) scale. The parameterization employed in the survey was a WTP space model. Results show that both altruism and environmental concerns have significant effects on the amount people are willing to pay for changes in forest management.     

Can entomophagous nematodes slow the spread of invasive pest populations? The case study of Beddingia siricidicola released for the management of Sirex noctilio

Though rarely used in this way, biological control could potentially be exploited for managing spread of invasive species. Because spread of invasive species emerges from the combined action of population growth and dispersal, natural enemies that affect either of these processes should also affect spread. Dispersal of parasitoid species plays a key role in determining their impact on population growth of an invading host species along their expanding population front. In contrast, dispersal of most true parasites only occurs via movement of hosts so any impact that parasites may have on host dispersal may limit the parasite’s own capacity to keep up with an expanding host population. We test this premise by examining field data from what is probably the best example of the successful use of true parasites in biological control: the nematode Beddingia (=Deladenus) siricidicola, which is released for management of Sirex noctilio populations. We analyze the historical impact of nematode releases on the rate of spread of invasive S. noctilio populations in Southern Argentina. Our findings suggest that, nematode releases did not discernibly slow the spread of S. noctilio populations. We conclude that although entomophagous parasites could be effective at reducing the growth and dispersal of localized host populations, they are unlikely, unless widely released through the leading edges, to slow the spread of invading hosts.     

Forest as a place for recreation but also the source of allergenic plant pollen: to come or avoid?

For many years, we have observed a significant rise in urban population, the spatial development of cities, and an increase in urbanized areas. More and more people feel the need to have contact with nature. The interest in forest recreation is growing, though the forest is a serious source of allergenic plant pollen. The aim of the present study was to compare two forest types in the context of their recreational potential and the effect strength of aeroallergens. This study was conducted in SE Poland in a Nemoral Scots pine forest (RB) and in a Central European submountainous beech forest (TH). Their recreational potential was assessed. Samples of moss containing plant pollen were collected under the canopy, from forest clearings and forest edges as well as in an open area. Based on the number of pollen grains deposited in moss pollsters, the forest impact on humans was calculated. The recreational potential values for both sites studied are evidence of the high recreational suitability of these forests, but the recreational capacity of RB is lower compared to TH. Palynological analysis showed that the pollen deposition is higher in BR and that the plant pollen risk is lowest under the canopy, regardless of the forest type. The beech forest was found to be characterized by greater recreational potential and a weaker actual effect of pollen allergens than the pine forest. In assessing forest recreational potential, palynological data should form the basis for modification of the degree of recreational suitability. Such information would also be useful in controlling recreational traffic since, as we have proved, visiting appropriate places in a forest allows the exposure of allergen sensitive people to be reduced.     

Can the nitrogenous composition of xylem sap be used to assess salinity stress in Casuarina glauca?

It is predicted that dryland salinity will affect up to 17 Mha of the Australian landscape by 2050, and therefore, monitoring the health of tree plantings and remnant native vegetation in saline areas is increasingly important. Casuarina glauca Sieber ex Spreng. has considerable salinity tolerance and is commonly planted in areas with a shallow, saline water table. To evaluate the potential of using the nitrogenous composition of xylem sap to assess salinity stress in C. glauca, the responses of trees grown with various soil salinities in a greenhouse were compared with those of trees growing in field plots with different water table depths and groundwater salinities. In the greenhouse, increasing soil salinity led to increased allocation of nitrogen (N) to proline and arginine in both stem and root xylem sap, with coincident decreases in citrulline and asparagine. Although the field plots were ranked as increasingly saline-based on ground water salinity and depth-only the allocation of N to citrulline differed significantly between the field plots. Within each plot, temporal variation in the composition of the xylem sap was related to rainfall, rainfall infiltration and soil salinity. Periods of low rainfall and infiltration and higher soil salinity corresponded with increased allocation of N to proline and arginine in the xylem sap. The allocation of N to citrulline and asparagine increased following rainfall events where rain was calculated to have infiltrated sufficiently to decrease soil salinity. The relationship between nitrogenous composition of the xylem sap of C. glauca and soil salinity indicates that the analysis of xylem sap is an effective method for assessing changes in salinity stress in trees at a particular site over time. However, the composition of the xylem sap proved less useful as a comparative index of salinity stress in trees growing at different sites.     

Does Remoteness from Urban Centres Influence Plant Diversity in Homegardens and Swidden Fields?: A Case Study from the Matsiguenka in the Amazonian Rain Forest of Peru

Swidden cultivation is the traditional agricultural system in most parts of the Amazonian rain forest. In a remote area in the Manu National Park, Peru, this system was analysed in two indigenous Matsiguenka communities. Diversity of cultivated plants on fields and in homegardens are presented in the current study. Cultivated plants were noted on two to four plots per field on 46 fields, making a total of 126 survey plots. Nineteen homegardens were studied as well. Dominating species cultivated on fields is cassava (Manihot esculenta). Fruit trees such as the peach palm (Bactris gasipaes), guava (Psidium guajava) or Inga edulis, but also cotton (Gossypium barbadense) and a medicinal plant (Cyperus sp.) predominate in more than 75 % of the homegardens analysed. Species diversity increases steadily from 18 and 24 species on 1- and 2-year-old fields to 26, 29 and 66 species in young, medium old and old homegardens, respectively. Seventy-one different species in total were found in all homegardens analysed and 25 in swidden fields. Diversity of species cultivated in homegardens is low compared to other studies in the rain forest of the Amazon. This seems to be due to their remoteness from the next urban centre and to the fact that they are native communities with still low external exchange of information. These findings are in contrast to the hypothesis that remoteness from urban centres increases species richness because subsistence production is based on a broad variety of species. In contrast to species richness in homegardens, differences in species richness in swidden fields between the present and other studies could not be found.     

Can fog contribute to the nutrition of Chamaecyparis obtusa var. formosana? Uptake of a fog solute tracer into foliage and transport to roots

Yellow cypress (Chamaecyparis obtusa (Siebold & Zucc.) Endl. var. formosana (Hayata) Rehder) is the predominant tree species of Taiwan's nutrient-poor, mountain fog forests. Little is known about the potential contribution of solute uptake from fog to the overall nutrition of these trees. Shoots of yellow cypress seedlings were misted with artificial fog containing the tracer rubidium (Rb) in laboratory and field experiments to determine if there is solute uptake from the fog. After misting shoots for six weeks, substantial amounts of tracer were detected in unexposed roots by inductively coupled plasma mass spectroscopy bulk analysis. Possible routes of entry were examined by element imaging with energy dispersive X-ray analysis. Direct uptake of the tracer into leaves across the cuticle and epidermis was small, excluding this as the major uptake path. Accumulations of Rb were found on leaf surfaces along the edges of the leaves. The almost daily changes in fog coverage and air humidity may enhance the accumulation of fog solutes at leaf edges. Accumulation of Rb was also found in narrow clefts between opposite leaves and between the outermost and underlying alternating stacked leaves. The clefts provide a direct passage from the leaf surface to the space beneath the imbricate leaves and the underlying alternate leaves, possibly facilitating solute uptake from fog, which in turn may contribute to the nutrition of yellow cypress.     

Can habitat prediction models contribute to the restoration and conservation of the threatened tree Abies pinsapo Boiss. in Southern Spain?

We examined the association between habitat variables and the relative impacts of topographic microclimates as a valuable tool for restoration and conservation of Abies pinsapo in southern Spain. We used presence–absence data from A. pinsapo and 79 environmental variables and biomod species distribution models to describe the current and future species habitat across the Sierra de las Nieves Natural Park (southern Spain). A. pinsapo habitat was most strongly associated with microtopographic (solar incidence) and temperature variables, indicating climate-driven changes in microhabitat use. Most of the temperature variation among the study site was attributable to topographic microclimates rather than regional temperature differences, such that differences in microhabitat associations occurred principally between north- and south-facing slopes within the same region. The current potential distribution suggests that around 8.7% (56.44 km²) of the study area is highly suitable for A. pinsapo, with 9.7% (62.84 km²) being moderately suitable. Under different global circulation models and climate change scenarios, the net decrease in suitable habitat is predicted to be 93% of the current distribution by 2040, disappearing altogether by 2099. Our findings also show a sharp reduction of potential restoration areas (1.8% of the current areas). Microclimatic variation generated by the topography offers the microclimate-driven locations of habitat suitability which could shape species’ distribution restoration actions and their responses to environmental change. The approach presented here can provide a rapid assessment of the future conservation status of other important forest tree species in Spain, improving our understanding of the vulnerability of endangered species under climate change, and can be an effective tool for biodiversity conservation, restoration, and management.

     

Can we really manage tropical forests without knowing the species within? Getting back to the basics of forest management through taxonomy

Considering the pressures on tropical forests from deforestation and the recent expansion of harvesting through forest concessions in the Brazilian Amazon, it is imperative that forest management systems are scrutinized to ensure sustainability. One of the basic problems in forest management is the correct identification of species within the forest stand. While this is a well known issue, little consideration is given to how to mitigate this problem or its affects on management practices and conservation. This paper examines the current practice of forest inventories in the Brazilian Amazon, as part of the mandatory system of reduced impact logging (RIL), using extensive forest inventory verification. The results show that the RIL management plan implemented in the project area was based on a highly inaccurate forest inventory. At least 132 species or 43.5% of all species identified after botanical checking did not appear in the forest inventory and the common practice of matching vernacular names to scientific ones proved to be severely deficient. In contrast, a high percentage of field identifications based on local people's expertise were correct. We suggest changes to current practices, including the training and use of parataxonomists, the collection of samples for verification, and stricter government control over current practices, which will achieve greater accuracy in data collection and forest management planning. Ultimately, we argue that in the current climate of extensive deforestation and forest use, it is essential that all aspects of RIL systems are reevaluated in order to achieve economic and ecological sustainability.