Treatment of fractures in avian species.

External fixation, with coaptation or Kirschner-Ehmer splints, is a viable treatment for many fractures in captive and wild birds. Important considerations in selecting a device are the weight and size of the device, location of the fracture relative to joints, and prognosis associated with location of the fracture(s). A variety of materials, not limited to traditional medical materials, may be used in coaptation splinting. Straws, plastic spoons, and rubber balls can serve as effective splints. Type I and II Kirschner splints are typically used in birds, although large birds may require a type III splint on leg fractures. The most useful configuration for wing fractures is the type Ia single bar splint using epoxy or acrylic for the connecting bar. This splint is lightweight, positioned close to the patient, and stable for most fractures. The type II splint is an excellent choice for leg fractures at the level of the tibiotarsus and below. The destructive character of psittacines requires all splints be protected from the beak of the bird. Clavicular-furcular and coracoid fractures in small birds may be effectively managed with coaptation splinting. In birds over 400 g body weight, open reduction is needed for best results. Since fractures of the foramen triosseum are usually not surgically repairable, they can be stabilized with coaptation splints. Although humeral fractures may be managed with coaptation in some circumstances, firm stabilization with a type I Kirschner-Ehmer splint or internal fixation is best. Single bone fracture(s) of the radius or ulna can usually be managed with minimal treatment, brailling, or figure-of-eight wraps. Fractures of both the radius and the ulna require a type I Kirschner-Ehmer splint for internal fixation. Coaptation splinting alone is usually indicated for carpal or carpometacarpal injuries. Femoral fractures in small birds may be managed with coaptation splinting, although fractures in large birds or unstable fractures require internal fixation or a type I Kirschner-Ehmer splint. Tibiotarsal fractures, in many species, may be managed with internal fixation or a type II Kirschner-Ehmer splint. Tarsometatarsal fractures can be cast or stabilized with a type II Kirschner-Ehmer splint. Phalangeal fractures are best managed with coaptation splinting.     

Effect of the analgesic butorphanol on activity behaviour in turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo)

During fattening, the bodyweight of modern broad-breasted turkeys increases considerably within a very short space of time. In particular, the breast muscles increase disproportionately. This leads to a disadvantageous distribution in weight, and as a consequence, to a disturbed leg position and skeletal deformations like antitrochanteric degeneration, tibial dyschondroplasia, bending, twisting and rotation of the tibia, osteochondrosis, osteomyelitis, rickets, and epiphyseolysis of the femoral head increases. This cases of degenerative joint disease cause severe pain in humans and there are indications that this is also true for turkeys. The purpose of this study was to determine if behaviour indicative of such pain in turkeys of the B.U.T. Big 6 breeding line could be attenuated by administering a quick-acting analgesic, butorphanol. Twelve pairs of turkeys were tested at the ages of 7 and 12 weeks. One bird in each pair received an analgesic opioid injection, while the other one received a control injection of physiologically balanced saline solution. The time the birds spent putting weight on their legs, i.e., 'walking' and 'standing' and the distance covered by the birds were recorded during the 30 min periods before and after the application of the drug. At week seven the treated birds spent significantly more time putting weight on their legs than control birds. At week 12, the same tendency was observed. No significant differences were found in the distances covered by the animals. It is concluded that fattening turkeys reduce the time they are putting weight on their legs because these behaviours may be associated with pain.     

A review of avian influenza in different bird species

Only type A influenza viruses are known to cause natural infections in birds, but viruses of all 15 haemagglutinin and all nine neuraminidase influenza A subtypes in the majority of possible combinations have been isolated from avian species. Influenza A viruses infecting poultry can be divided into two distinct groups on the basis of their ability to cause disease. The very virulent viruses cause highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI), in which mortality may be as high as 100%. These viruses have been restricted to subtypes H5 and H7, although not all viruses of these subtypes cause HPAI. All other viruses cause a much milder, primarily respiratory disease, which may be exacerbated by other infections or environmental conditions. Since 1959, primary outbreaks of HPAI in poultry have been reported 17 times (eight since 1990), five in turkeys and 12 in chickens. HPAI viruses are rarely isolated from wild birds, but extremely high isolation rates of viruses of low virulence for poultry have been recorded in surveillance studies, giving overall figures of about 15% for ducks and geese and around 2% for all other species. Influenza viruses have been shown to affect all types of domestic or captive birds in all areas of the world, but the frequency with which primary infections occur in any type of bird depends on the degree of contact there is with feral birds. Secondary spread is usually associated with human involvement, probably by transferring infective faeces from infected to susceptible birds.     

Comparative efficiency of clinical and post-mortem examination for detection of tibial dyschondroplasia in broiler breeding

An investigation of leg abnormalities, including dyschondroplasia, was conducted in 45-day-old male elite breeders. The birds were reared by a broiler breeder company under standard commercial broiler conditions and at 45 days of age a random selection of male progeny from 10 sires were examined clinically, according to a commercial procedure, before being killed by cervical dislocation. Detailed post-mortem examination of the legs included inspection of the growth plates and scoring of lesions of dyschondroplasia. Differences in the prevalence of dyschrondroplasia were recorded between sires, dams within sires and sires of dams. A total of 557 birds were examined, representing at least 50 birds per sire.Lesions of dyschondroplasia were detected in 26.9% of the birds, the site of highest prevalence being the proximal tibiotarsus. There was a highly significant difference in prevalence between sire families (P < 0.001) and between the dam progeny in two sire families (P < 0.01 and P < 0.05, respectively). There was no significant difference in the mean conformation score of birds with and without dyschondroplasia or between birds with lesions up to or above 10 mm in length. The mean live weight of birds with dyschondroplasia was significantly less than that of birds without the lesion (P < 0.02). The commercial selection procedure against leg weakness was shown to be effective in detecting 68.5% of birds with dyschondroplasia, 73.7% of those with both dyschondroplasia and bowing of the proximal tibiotarsus and 84.4% of those with necrotic lesions of dyschondroplasia.A simple dissection method for assessing lesions of dyschondroplasia and some other aids to its detection are described. The observed association between various forms of leg abnormalities are briefly discussed.     

朱鹗雏鸟几种非传染性疾病的原因与防治概述

为做好朱鹛的迁地保护工作,进行人工繁育是短时间内提高种群数量的最有效措施。浙江省德清珍稀野生动物繁育研究中心自2008年从陕西野生动物救护中心引入5对朱鹦,通过5a努力,目前存栏数已达118只,取得了一些成绩,同时也积累了一些经验教训。本文以朱鹦浙江种群的人工繁育工作实践为基础,结合现有的相关文献,对浙江省德清珍稀野生动物繁育研究中心2008—2012年饲养的138只朱鹃雏鸟的非传染性疾病进行了统计分析,同时阐述了其发病原因和防治措施。主要疾病包括：腿部疾病4种（10例,占7．25％）：船桨腿、卷曲趾、关节肿大、皮下气肿;头颈部疾病3种（15例,占10,87％）：交叉喙、长短喙、歪脖子;还有其他疾病3种（5例,占3．62％）：育雏室小气候控制不良引发的疾病、胚胎病或孵化不良引发的疾病、不明原因死亡的疾病。通过分析病因,提出防范措施,为后续的育雏工作提供指导,以避免类似的疾病再次发生,促进朱鹦人工种群的发展,对其他濒危野生鸟类的人工复壮也有一定的指导意义。     

Beak and feather disease virus haemagglutinating activity using erythrocytes from African Grey parrots and Brown-headed parrots

Psittacine beak and feather disease (PBFD) is a common viral disease of wild and captive psittacine birds characterized by symmetric feather loss and beak deformities. The causative agent, beak and feather disease virus (BFDV), is a small, circular single-stranded DNA virus that belongs to the genus Circovirus. BFDV can be detected by PCR or the use of haemagglutination (HA) and haemagglutination inhibition (HI) assays that detect antigen and antibodies respectively. Erythrocytes from a limited number of psittacine species of Australian origin can be used in these tests. In South Africa, the high cost of these birds makes them difficult to obtain for experimental purposes. Investigation into the use of erythrocytes from African Grey parrots and Brown-headed parrots yielded positive results showing the haemagglutinating activity of their erythrocytes with purified BFDV obtained from confirmed clinical cases of the disease. The HA activity was further confirmed by the demonstration of HI using BFDV antiserum from three different African Grey parrots previously exposed to the virus and not showing clinical signs of the disease.     

Origin and evolution of highly pathogenic H5N1 avian influenza in Asia

Outbreaks of highly pathogenic avian influenza caused by H5N1 viruses were reported almost simultaneously in eight neighbouring Asian countries between December 2003 and January 2004, with a ninth reporting in August 2004, suggesting that the viruses had spread recently and rapidly. However, they had been detected widely in the region in domestic waterfowl and terrestrial poultry for several years before this, and the absence of widespread disease in the region before 2003, apart from localised outbreaks in the Hong Kong Special Autonomous Region (SAR), is perplexing. Possible explanations include limited virus excretion by domestic waterfowl infected with H5N1, the confusion of avian influenza with other serious endemic diseases, the unsanctioned use of vaccines, and the under-reporting of disease as a result of limited surveillance. There is some evidence that the excretion of the viruses by domestic ducks had increased by early 2004, and there is circumstantial evidence that they can be transmitted by wild birds. The migratory birds from which viruses have been isolated were usually sick or dead, suggesting that they would have had limited potential for carrying the viruses over long distances unless subclinical infections were prevalent. However, there is strong circumstantial evidence that wild birds can become infected from domestic poultry and potentially can exchange viruses when they share the same environment. Nevertheless, there is little reason to believe that wild birds have played a more significant role in spreading disease than trade through live bird markets and movement of domestic waterfowl. Asian H5N1 viruses were first detected in domestic geese in southern China in 1996. By 2000, their host range had extended to domestic ducks, which played a key role in the genesis of the 2003/04 outbreaks. The epidemic was not due to the introduction and spread of a single virus but was caused by multiple viruses which were genotypically linked to the Goose/GD/96 lineage via the haemagglutinin gene. The H5N1 viruses isolated from China, including the Hong Kong SAR, between 1999 and 2004 had a range of genotypes and considerable variability within genotypes. The rising incidence and widespread reporting of disease in 2003/04 can probably be attributed to the increasing spread of the viruses from existing reservoirs of infection in domestic waterfowl and live bird markets leading to greater environmental contamination. When countries in the region started to report disease in December 2003, others were alerted to the risk and disease surveillance and reporting improved. The H5N1 viruses have reportedly been eliminated from three of the nine countries that reported disease in 2003/04, but they could be extremely difficult to eradicate from the remaining countries, owing to the existence of populations and, possibly, production and marketing sectors, in which apparently normal birds harbour the viruses.     

A retrospective study of the success of medical and surgical treatment of wild Australian raptors

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the results of medical and surgical regimens utilised to treat injured and diseased wild Australian raptors presented at our practice, and to determine if the time, effort and cost of treating the birds was justified in terms of the outcomes achieved. PROCEDURE: All the practice's clinical records relating to the examination and treatment of wild raptors were reviewed for the period April 1994 to December 1998. The species of birds, the aetiology of their injuries or diseases, the treatment protocols and the outcomes of those treatments were correlated and tabulated for evaluation. RESULTS: Fifteen Australian species of raptor were examined and treated. Complete records were available for 104 birds of prey, 73 being Accipitriformes and 31 Strigiformes. The poorest prognosis was for birds involved in motor vehicle impacts, while birds suffering malnutrition or starvation had higher survival rates. The overall rate of survival was 50%. CONCLUSION: Based on the severity of diseases and injuries at the time of presentation, the survival rate was considered acceptable. Veterinary involvement in the treatment of the wild raptors was necessary for the maintenance of the birds' welfare, and to determine appropriate treatments. Intangible benefits included increased practice staff satisfaction, and improving the veterinary professions' public image by providing pro bono treatment for Australian wildlife.     

Emergency care of raptors.

Emergency care of raptors often requires extensive diagnostics and therapeutic regimens to stabilize and support the ill or injured raptor. Whether falconry birds, educational birds, or raptors from the wild are presented, various medical conditions must be addressed to help guide the practitioner toward a complete recovery for the raptor.     

Analysis of a village chicken production system and performance of improved dual purpose chickens under a subtropical hill agro-ecosystem in India

This study was designed to analyze the low input backyard poultry production system practiced by the tribal farmers, and evaluate the performance of an improved dual-purpose breed, the Vanaraja. Results revealed that a significantly (p < 0.05) higher number of farmers used temporary, non-conventional poultry houses made of locally available materials, such as bamboo and wood. Most of the farmers (65.9 %) did not provide balanced feed to their poultry and did not vaccinate their birds against any disease. Under standard management conditions, the average body weight of Vanaraja birds at 6 weeks was 625 +/- 10.9 g. Under backyard conditions, the body weight at 18 months was 3.6 +/- 0.8 kg. The age at first egg was 154 +/- 9 days in the backyard system, whereas under the intensive system it was 196 +/- 4 days. Annual production under the backyard and intensive systems of rearing was 176 +/- 9 and 152 +/- 7 eggs, respectively. Mortality of adult birds was 12 % and predation by foxes and wild cats accounted for 1.67 %. This study revealed that village chickens are an important income source for household expenses, and that traditional free-range poultry production in the smallholder sector of developing countries can possibly be improved through the use of improved dual-purpose birds.     

The role of indigenous wild, semidomestic, and exotic birds in the epizootiology of velogenic viscerotropic Newcastle disease in southern California, 1972-1973.

During an epornitic of velogenic viscerotropic Newcastle disease (VVND) in southern California, free-flying wild birds, captive and free-ranging semidomestic birds, and exotic birds were collected from the quarantine area to determine their role in the epizootiology of the disease. The VVND virus was isolated from 0.04% of 9,446 free-flying wild birds, 0.76% of 4,367 semidomestic birds, and 1.01% of 3,780 exotic birds examined. Three house sparrows and 1 crow directly associated with infected poultry flocks were the only free-flying wild birds from which VVND virus was isolated. Among semidomestic species, ducks, quail, chukars, pheasants, peafowl, pigeons, and doves were found to be infected. Psttacines, pittas, and toucans accounted for 92% of the VVND virus isolations from exotic birds. In addition, domestic Newcastle disease virus (NDV) was isolated from 0.29% of the free-flying wild birds, from 1.65% of the semidomestic birds, and from 0.19% of the exotic birds collected. Hemagglutination-inhibition against domestic NDV was demonstrated in 0.24% of 3,796 wild bird serums, 8.28% of 2,004 semidomestic bird serums, and 3.90% of 231 exotic bird serums tested. Although few free-flying wild birds were infected with VVND virus in this epornitic, the isolation of domestic NDV strains from free-flying wild ducks and mourning doves suggests the potential for transportation of NDV over long distances by migratory birds.     

Chicken welfare as indicated by lesions on carcases in supermarkets

1. The extent of visible lesions in British broiler carcases was investigated in order to discover the extent of any poor welfare. It is well established that hock burn and some other injuries can occur during housing of broiler chickens, whilst other injuries can occur during handling. 2. Three hundred and eighty-four whole conventionally reared British Farm Standard Grade A chickens were scrutinised in supermarkets to assess the frequency of 15 kinds of lesions. Six lesions were analysed histopathologically and this showed that hock burn would have occurred several days pre-mortem, red alular and wrist bruise were very likely to have occurred pre-mortem, whilst red parson's nose and scratches were likely to have occurred pre-mortem. 3. Many broiler carcases in the supermarkets had dermal lesions: 0.82 had hock burns, 0.45 a red parson's nose, 0.32 a red alular, 0.21 wrist bruises and 0.21 had at least one scratch on a leg. The frequency of the larger hock burns increased with body weight. 'Organic' chickens had half as many hock burns as conventionally reared broilers, perhaps because of differences in litter quality or leg strength. 4. The sample studied indicates that painful lesions which would result in poor welfare are frequent in broilers slaughtered in the UK. The Grade A chickens observed exclude birds with obvious visible defects because these birds would have had the blemishes removed and the carcase would have been portioned. Hence the frequencies of lesions in farmed birds would be higher than those reported here.     

Response of twenty-seven horses with lower leg injuries to cold spa bath hydrotherapy

The influence of hypertonic cold water (5-9°C) spa bath hydrotherapy on the response of 27 horses with various lower leg injuries is described. Fifteen horses with grade 2 or 3 superficial digital flexor tendon damage and four with suspensory ligament injury treated for 10 minutes three times a week responded with markedly improved ultrasonographic echogenicity and fiber realignment of injured tissues. All but two of these horses when placed back into training returned to compete successfully within six months without re-injury. Two equestrian sports horses with traumatic contusion injury treated twice daily were able to compete successfully 72 hours after injury without supportive drug therapy. Responses of six individual horses with other leg conditions also responded to hydrotherapy faster than expected. The responses indicate hypertonic cold water spa therapy could be a valuable addition to therapeutic regimes with or without other therapies.     

Serotyping of US isolates of Chlamydophila psittaci from domestic and wild birds.

The identities of chlamydial strains, which can infect a given host, are important to know for disease prognosis, disease control, and epidemiology. The microimmunofluorescence test (MIFT) was used with a panel of 14 serovar-specific monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) to serotype 150 chlamydial isolates from domestic and wild birds. The isolates were obtained from birds submitted to diagnostic laboratories or during investigation of outbreaks. The 150 US isolates included 96 from the order Psittaciformes, 14 isolates from the order Columbiformes, 2 from the order Passeriformes, 16 from the order Galliformes, 12 from the order Struthioniformes, and 3 from the order Falconiformes. A total of 93, or 97%, of the Psittaciformes isolates were of serovar A; 11, or 79%, of the Columbiformes isolates were of serovar B; 64% of the Galliformes isolates were of serovar D, and all the Struthioniformes isolates were of serovar E. The 3 Falconiformes isolates did not react with any of the MAbs to the avian and mammalian isolates and are presumed to represent a new strain. The results show that specific chlamydial strains are usually associated with certain types of birds and that some serovars may be unusually virulent for certain species of birds. The MIFT using serovar-specific MAbs provides a rapid method to serotype new isolates, making it a useful system for epidemiological studies.     

Raptor medicine: an approach to wild, falconry, and educational birds of prey.

A veterinarian receiving birds of prey (raptors) will often be presented with wild, educational, or falconry raptors. Raptors trained for the sport of falconry and educational raptors are handled in a precise manner, often differently from the wild raptors. It is imperative for veterinarians treating raptors to be familiar with the equipment and terminology used by the individuals caring for these birds. The hospital staff must also be educated to handle the raptors properly, both wild and tame, because differences do exist between the approaches. Raptor medicine requires a thorough diagnostic work-up and aggressive therapeutic plan to help ensure a fast and complete recovery.     

Vulture rescue and rehabilitation in South Africa: an urban perspective

South Africa is home to 9 vulture species, of which 7 are endangered. While the cause of the population declines remains largely speculative, a vast amount of effort has been dedicated towards the protection of populations by ensuring sustainable and safe food sources for the various colonies. Limited focus was placed in the past on efforts related to the rescue and/or rehabilitation (R&R) of injured birds and the release of these birds back into the wild. This paper provides an overview of the causes, the impact and success of 3 organisations involved in R&R efforts of vultures in the Magaliesberg mountain range and surrounding areas over a period of 10 years. Study material included 162 Cape griffon (CGV) and 38 African white-backed (AWBV) vultures. Datasets include the number, sex and age of birds received, the reason the vultures were brought in for R&R, surgical interventions performed and outcomes of rescue efforts. The CGV dominated the rehabilitation attempts. Results further show that a large number of apparently healthy birds were presented for veterinary treatment. The R&R data clearly indicate that the major cause of injuries was birds colliding with overhead pylons, as a high number of soft tissue and skeletal injuries were observed. The study also shows that successful releases of rescued birds are possible. It is concluded that urbanisation has had a major negative impact on vultures around the Magaliesberg mountain range.     

Viruses of waterfowl

Viral disease can cause substantial mortality in wild populations of ducks as well as domesticated geese and ducks. Migrating and captive waterfowl play a role in the dynamics and epidemiology of some viruses that also infect humans, such as influenza virus and West Nile virus. Crowded farm conditions favor the transmission of infectious disease agents among birds. Disease transmission is further facilitated by the comingling of wild anatids with nonmigratory resident waterfowl flocks in zoological parks or on farms. The following article will emphasize the most important viral diseases of waterfowl and briefly cover the newer diseases of suspected viral etiology in this group of birds. As viral detection and identification techniques become more and more sophisticated, and as the study of wildlife diseases increases, new viruses will be discovered and new diseases will be encountered. More research into the viral diseases of waterfowl is needed; the implementation of the latest techniques in molecular epidemiology in addition to the “gold standard” techniques such as virus isolation and histopathology, will yield insight into how viruses move from species to species and from region to region.     

Legislation for the control of avian influenza in the European union

In the light of experience gained with avian influenza (AI) outbreaks in Europe and elsewhere in the world, the European Union (EU) legislation has recently been updated. The strategy to control the introduction and spread of AI relies on rapid disease detection, killing of infected birds, movement restrictions for live birds and their products, cleaning and disinfection and vaccination. Measures are not only to be implemented in case of outbreaks of highly pathogenic AI (HPAI), but are now also directed against occurrence of low pathogenic AI of H5 and H7 (LPAI) subtypes in poultry, albeit in a modified manner proportionate to the risk posed by these pathotypes. Enhanced surveillance in poultry holdings and wild birds, as well as preventive vaccination, has also been introduced. EU Measures are flexible and largely based on risk assessment of the local epidemiological situation. The occurrence of HPAI H5N1 of the Asian lineage in the EU and its unprecedented spread by wild migratory birds necessitated the adoption of additional control measures. Although HPAI H5N1 has affected wild birds and poultry holdings in several EU Member States, EU legislation and its implementation in Member States has so far successfully limited the impact of the disease on animal and human health.     

Health evaluation of free-ranging and captive blue-fronted Amazon parrots (Amazona aestiva) in the Gran chaco, Bolivia.

Bolivia has a total of 47 species of Psittacidae, seven of which have been identified in our study site, the semiarid Gran Chaco of the Isoso. One species, the blue-fronted parrot (Amazona aestiva), is frequently captured by local Isose?o Guaraní Indians for exploitation on the national and international market. These birds are often temporarily housed in small villages under unhygienic conditions with poultry and other domestic species. On occasion, these parrots escape back to the wild. Additionally, many of these birds are kept as pets or are used to lure wild. parrots within slingshot range for subsequent capture. In this study, we evaluated the health status, including the level of exposure to selected infectious agents, in the wild-caught captive birds and free-ranging birds. Physical examinations were performed, and blood was collected, from 54 live birds (20 captive and 34 free-ranging). Feces were collected from 15 birds (seven captive and eight free-ranging). Necropsies were also performed on four recently dead wild-caught birds. On serologic testing, no birds were found to have antibodies to avian influenza virus, Chlamydophila psittaci, infectious bronchitis virus, infectious bursal disease virus, infectious laryngotracheitis virus, Marek's disease virus, paramyxovirus-1, paramyxovirus-2, paramyxovirus-3, polyomavirus, eastern equine encephalitis virus, western equine encephalitis virus, or Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus. Positive antibody titers were found for psittacine herpesvirus (8/44, 18.2%), Aspergillus spp. (3/51, 5.9%), and Salmonella pullorum (33/49, 67.3%). All three of the birds that tested antibody positive for Aspergillus spp. were captive, whereas six of the eight and 15 of the 33 birds that tested positive for psittacine herpesvirus and S. pullorum, respectively, were wild.