五爪金龙、 南美蟛蜞菊入侵对土壤化学和微生物学性质的影响

【目的】五爪金龙(Ipomoea cairica)、 南美蟛蜞菊(Wedelia trilobata)已入侵我国华南地区并造成严重危害。本文研究了五爪金龙入侵群落、 南美蟛蜞菊入侵群落与土著植物类芦(Neyraudia reynaudiana)群落内的土壤养分、 土壤微生物量、 土壤酶活性以及微生物群落代谢活性、 碳源利用特征与功能多样性的变化规律,探讨两种外来植物入侵对土壤生态系统的影响,为揭示其野外入侵机制提供科学依据。【方法】采用野外样方法于2010年1月在广州市东郊的火炉山森林公园设置五爪金龙入侵区、 南美蟛蜞菊入侵区和土著植物类芦区3类样地,测定土壤养分、 土壤酶活性、 土壤微生物量与微生物功能多样性。【结果】1)与土著植物区相比,五爪金龙入侵区土壤有机碳、 全氮、 全磷以及速效氮、 速效磷、 速效钾含量显著提高,增幅达到60.38%~230.01%; 南美蟛蜞菊入侵区土壤有机碳、 全氮、 速效氮、 速效磷含量亦显著提高,增幅达到50.54%~145.52%; 两种外来植物入侵区土壤C/N比显著降低,但对全钾含量的影响不明显。2)两种外来植物能够显著提高入侵地的土壤微生物量,其中五爪金龙、 南美蟛蜞菊入侵区的土壤微生物量碳(Cmic)、 氮(Nmic)、 磷(Pmic)含量分别比土著植物区增加105.00%~152.15%和61.51%~138.27%,但土壤微生物量在两个入侵区之间的差异不明显; 对于土壤微生物熵,南美蟛蜞菊入侵区的Cmic/Corg值显著高于土著植物区,但Nmic/Nt、 Pmic/Pt值3类样地之间差异不显著。3)两种外来植物入侵显著提高土壤脲酶、 蛋白酶、 蔗糖酶和纤维素酶的活性,其中南美蟛蜞菊入侵区的土壤脲酶、 蛋白酶和纤维素酶活性最高,分别比土著植物区增加70.35%、 21.51%和227.86%; 对于蔗糖酶活性,五爪金龙、 南美蟛蜞菊入侵区的增幅则分别达到322.58%和157.14%; 过氧化氢酶活性各处理间的差异较小,差异均不显著。4)两种外来植物入侵能够提高土壤微生物群落的代谢活性,平均孔颜色变化率(AWCD)在整个培育周期内均表现为五爪金龙入侵区＞南美蟛蜞菊入侵区＞土著植物区,其中72 h的AWCD值分别为1.18、 0.88和0.56,差异显著。与土著植物区相比,五爪金龙入侵区6种类型碳源的利用效率显著提高,其增幅高达75.00%~162.86%; 南美蟛蜞菊入侵区碳水化合物类、 羧酸类和聚合物类碳源的利用率亦显著提高,其增幅分别为87.72%、 41.18%和83.72%; 两种入侵植物对不同类型碳源的利用程度存在一定差异,五爪金龙对羧酸类、 胺类碳源的利用率显著高于南美蟛蜞菊。主成分分析显示,PC1与PC2能够解释不同入侵区土壤微生物群落碳源利用数据71.89%的总体变异,其中PC1主要受碳水化合物类、 氨基酸类与聚合物类碳源的影响,PC2则主要受碳水化合物类与羧酸类碳源的制约。两种外来植物入侵对土壤微生物群落的功能多样性产生重要影响,其中入侵地土壤微生物群落的Shannon-Wiener指数(H)、 Mc Intosh指数(U)、 丰富度指数(S)和Simpson优势度指数(Ds)显著高于土著植物区,但两个入侵区之间的差异较小; 三个处理区的Pielou均匀度指数(E)差异不明显。【结论】五爪金龙、 南美蟛蜞菊两种外来植物能够改善入侵地的土壤营养环境,提高土壤肥力水平,形成对自身生长、 竞争有利的微环境,从而加快入侵扩散。     

尾矿砂堆积地五节芒自然定居对土壤微生物生物量、呼吸速率及酶活性的影响

为了认识重金属耐性植物五节芒（Miscanthus floridulus）对尾矿砂土壤的改良作用,在尾矿砂堆积地上选择1个裸露的尾矿砂样点（对照）和4个五节芒定居的尾矿砂样点（RI、RII、RIII和RIV）为样地,研究了土壤微生物生物量、呼吸速率和酶活性随五节芒定居梯度的变化规律以及这些微生物参数与土壤理化特性和重金属含量的关系。结果发现,随着五节芒在尾矿砂上的定居,除土壤pH以外,土壤有机碳、总氮、总磷、NH4+-N、NO3--N和速效磷的含量以及团聚体稳定性和最大持水量均显著提高（P 0.05）,而土壤重金属总量与DTPA可提取量均显著下降（P 0.05）。土壤生物生物量碳、氮、磷、基础呼吸速率、基质诱导呼吸速率、10种土壤酶活性均显著提高（P 0.05）,但土壤呼吸熵和多酚氧化酶活性显著下降（P 0.05）。主分量分析（PCA）结果表明,土壤微生物参数、土壤理化特性和土壤重金属数据均可显著区分出5个研究样地;典范相关分析（CCA）结果看出,土壤微生物参数总体变化与土壤理化特性呈显著正相关（pH除外）,与土壤重金属呈显著负相关。     

An Invasive Succulent Plant (Kalanchoe daigremontiana) Influences Soil Carbon and Nitrogen Mineralization in a Neotropical Semiarid Zone

It has long been recognized that plant invasions may alter carbon(C) and nitrogen(N) cycles, but the direction and magnitude of such alterations have been rarely quantified. In this study, we quantified the effects caused by the invasion of a noxious exotic plant,Kalanchoe daigremontiana(Crassulaceae), on C and N mineralization and enzymatic and microbial activities in the soil of a semiarid locality in Venezuela. We compared soil parameters associated with these processes(C and N mineralization time and the cumulative values, fluorescein diacetate hydrolytic activity, and activities of dehydrogenase, β-glucosidase, glucosaminidase, and urease) between invaded and adjacent non-invaded sites. In addition, correlations among these parameters and the soil physical-chemical properties were also examined to determine if a positive feedback exists between nutrient availability and K. daigremontiana invasion. Overall,our results showed that C mineralization and transformation of organic compounds to NH_4~+ were favored at sites colonized by K.daigremontiana. With this species, we found the highest cumulative amounts of NH_4~+-N and C and the lowest mineralization time.These results could be explained by higher activities of urease and glucosaminidase in soils under the influence of K. daigremontiana.In addition, higher amounts of organic matter and moisture content in invaded soils might favor C and N mineralization. In conclusion,invasion of Neotropical semiarid zones by K. daigremontiana may influence the chemical and biological properties of the soils covered by this species, increasing nutrient bioavailability, which, in time, can facilitate the invasion process.     

Response of soil constituents to freeze-thaw cycles in wetland soil solution

Soil freeze-thaw cycles in the winter-cold zone can substantially affect soil carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus cycling, and deserve special consideration in wetlands of cold climates. Semi-disturbed soil columns from three natural wetlands (Carex marsh, Carex marshy meadow and Calamagrostis wet grassland) and a soybean field that has been reclaimed from a wetland were exposed to seven freeze-thaw cycles. The freeze-thaw treatments were performed by incubating the soil columns at −10 °C for 1 d and at 5 °C for 7 d. The control columns were incubated at 5 °C for 8 d. After each freeze-thaw cycle, the soil solution was extracted by a solution extractor installed in each soil layer of the soil column, and was analyzed for dissolved organic carbon (DOC), NH₄⁺-N, NO₃⁻-N and total dissolved phosphorus (TDP). The results showed that freeze-thaw cycles could increase DOC, NH₄⁺-N and NO₃⁻-N concentrations in soil solutions, and decrease TDP concentrations. Moreover, the changes of DOC, NH₄⁺-N, NO₃⁻-N and TDP concentrations in soil solutions caused by freeze-thaw cycles were different in various sampling sites and soil layers. The increments of DOC concentrations caused by freeze-thaw cycles were greater in the wetland soil columns than in the soybean field soil columns. The increments of NH₄⁺-N concentrations caused by freeze-thaw cycles decreased with the increase of soil depth. The depth variation in the increments of NO₃⁻-N concentrations caused by freeze-thaw cycles in the wetland soil columns was different from that in the soybean field soil columns. The decrements of TDP concentrations caused by freeze-thaw cycles were greater in columns of Carex marsh and Carex marshy meadow than in columns of Calamagrostis wet grassland and the soybean field. The study results provide information on the timing of nutrient release related to freezing and thawing in natural versus agronomic soils, and have implications for the timing of nutrient application in farm fields in relation to water quality protection.     

Microbial biomass and C and N transformations in forest floors under European beech, sessile oak, Norway spruce and Douglas-fir at four temperate forest sites

The purpose of this research was to compare soil chemistry, microbially mediated carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) transformations and microbial biomass in forest floors under European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.), sessile oak (Quercus petraea (Mattuschka) Lieblein), Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst) and Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirbel) Franco) at four study sites. We measured soil chemical characteristics, net N mineralization, potential and relative nitrification, basal respiration, microbial and metabolic quotient and microbial biomass C and N under monoculture stands at all sites (one mixed stand). Tree species affected soil chemistry, microbial activities and biomass, but these effects varied between sites. Our results indicated that the effect of tree species on net N mineralization was likely to be mediated through their effect on soil microbial biomass, reflecting their influence on organic matter content and carbon availability. Differences in potential nitrification and relative nitrification might be related to the presence of ground vegetation through its influence on soil NH₄ and labile C availability. Our findings highlight the need to study the effects of tree species on microbial activities at several sites to elucidate complex N cycle interactions between tree species, ground vegetation, soil characteristics and microbial processes.     

Tropical savannah woodland: effects of experimental fire on soil microorganisms and soil emissions of carbon dioxide

Burning of the vegetation in the African savannahs in the dry season is widespread and may have significant effects on soil chemical and biological properties. A field experiment in a full factorial randomised block design with fire, ash and extra grass biomass as main factors was carried out in savannah woodland of the Gambella region in Ethiopia. The microbial biomass C (C_mic) was 52% (fumigation-extraction) and 20% (substrate-induced respiration) higher in burned than unburned plots 12 d after burning. Both basal respiration and potential denitrification enzyme activity (PDA) immediately responded to burning and increased after treatment. However, in burned plots addition of extra biomass (fuel load) led to a reduction of C_mic and PDA due to enhanced fire temperature. Five days after burning, there was a short-lived burst in the in situ soil respiration following rainfall, with twice as high soil respiration in burned than unburned plots. In contrast, 12 d after burning soil respiration was 21% lower in the burned plots, coinciding with lower soil water content in the same plots. The fire treatment resulted in higher concentrations of dissolved organic C (24-85%) and nitrate (47-76%) in the soil until 90 d after burning, while soil NH₄⁺-N was not affected to the same extent. The increase in soil NO₃⁻-N but not NH₄⁺-N in the burned plots together with the well-aerated soil conditions indicated that nitrifying bacteria were stimulated by fire and immediately oxidised NH₄⁺-N to NO₃⁻-N. In the subsequent rainy season, NO₃⁻-N and, consequently, PDA were reduced by ash deposition. Further, C_mic was lower in burned plots at that time. However, the fire-induced changes in microbial biomass and activity were relatively small compared to the substantial seasonal variation, suggesting transient effects of the low severity experimental fire on soil microbial functioning.     

Non-target effects of entomopathogenic nematodes on soil microbial community and nutrient cycling processes: A microcosm study

Under microcosm conditions, changes in the soil microbial biomass, respiration rates, and nitrogen pools as indicators of potential non-target effects of entomopathogenic nematodes on soil, were evaluated. Two tests were conducted using soil collected from the field with no history of entomopathogenic nematode application. Treatments consisted of applications of Steinernema carpocapsae All strain in the presence or absence of the wax moth Galleria mellonella larva as a target insect host, compared with the untreated control (soil only). In the second experiment an insecticide treatment (trichlorfon) was added. Microbial biomass (total nitrogen), and mineral nitrogen (NH₄-N, NO₃-N) were measured using standard methods up to 32 days and soil respiration up to 64 days in both experiments. No negative effect was detected in the soil microbial biomass, respiration and nitrogen pools after application of S. carpocapsae. However, a significant increase in ammonium was measured during almost the entire period of the test in the nematode plus larva treatment, not shown in the other treatments. This high level of ammonium in the nematode plus larva treatment showed that entomopathogenic nematodes can indirectly affect system-level processes in soil and adds evidence on the importance of indirect interactions affecting functions in soil food webs. The application of the insecticide trichlorfon significantly suppressed the microbial biomass and nitrification process.     

间伐对杉木人工林土壤碳氮及其组分特征的影响

为探究不同间伐强度对杉木人工林土壤碳氮及其组分特征的影响,以福建省三明市官庄国有林场11年生杉木(Cunninghamia lanceolata)人工林为研究对象,采用弱度间伐(LIT)、中度间伐(MIT)、强度间伐(HIT)等3种间伐强度,研究不同间伐强度林分0—10,10—20,20—40,40—60,60—80,80—100 cm土层总有机碳(SOC)、全氮(TN)及易氧化有机碳(ROC)、硝态氮(NO_3~--N)、铵态氮(NH_4~+-N)、微生物量碳(MBC)、微生物量氮(MBN)、微生物熵碳(qMBC)、微生物熵氮(qMBN)的变化特征,以探讨不同间伐强度对杉木人工林土壤碳氮及其组分特征的影响。结果表明:间伐降低了土壤SOC和TN的含量,降低幅度分别为1.4%～36.9%,3.1%～45.7%。间伐增加了土壤MBC、NO_3~--N的含量,而对ROC、NH_4~+-N和MBN的程度在不同土层有差异,qMBC和qMBN随着间伐强度的增加而增大。相关性分析表明,土壤SOC分别与TN、qMBC、ROC、NH_4~+-N、MBC、MBN呈极显著正相关(P0.01);TN与qMBN、ROC、NH_4~+-N、MBC、MBN呈极显著正相关(P0.01)。杉木人工林间伐处理降低了土壤表层SOC和TN含量,增加了土壤SMBC和qMBC、qMBN,同时也增加了土壤表层(0—10 cm)SMBN。抚育间伐导致土壤SOC和TN含量降低主要是由于活性碳、氮含量的增加,提高土壤中有机质分解速率,最终导致土壤SOC和TN含量降低。     

Capacity of fatty acid profiles and substrate utilization patterns to describe differences in soil microbial communities associated with increased salinity or alkalinity at three locations in South Australia

 Fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) profiles, together with Biolog substrate utilization patterns, were used in conjunction with measurements of other soil chemical and microbiological properties to describe differences in soil microbial communities induced by increased salinity and alkalinity in grass/legume pastures at three sites in SE South Australia. Total ester-linked FAMEs (EL-FAMEs) and phospholipid-linked FAMEs (PL-FAMEs), were also compared for their ability to detect differences between the soil microbial communities. The level of salinity and alkalinity in affected areas of the pastures showed seasonal variation, being greater in summer than in winter. At the time of sampling for the chemical and microbiological measurements (winter) only the affected soil at site 1 was significantly saline. The affected soils at all three sites had lower organic C and total N concentrations than the corresponding non-affected soils. At site 1 microbial biomass, CO₂-C respiration and the rate of cellulose decomposition was also lower in the affected soil compared to the non-affected soil. Biomarker fatty acids present in both the EL- and PL-FAME profiles indicated a lower ratio of fungal to bacterial fatty acids in the saline affected soil at site 1. Analysis of Biolog substrate utilization patterns indicated that the bacterial community in the affected soil at site 1 utilized fewer carbon substrates and had lower functional diversity than the corresponding community in the non-affected soil. In contrast, increased alkalinity, of major importance at sites 2 and 3, had no effect on microbial biomass, the rate of cellulose decomposition or functional diversity but was associated with significant differences in the relative amounts of several fatty acids in the PL-FAME profiles indicative of a shift towards a bacterial dominated community. Despite differences in the number and relative amounts of fatty acids detected, principal component analysis of the EL- and PL-FAME profiles were equally capable of separating the affected and non-affected soils at all three sites. Redundancy analysis of the FAME data showed that organic C, microbial biomass, electrical conductivity and bicarbonate-extractable P were significantly correlated with variation in the EL-FAME profiles, whereas pH, electrical conductivity, NH₄-N, CO₂-C respiration and the microbial quotient were significantly correlated with variation in the PL-FAME profiles. Redundancy analysis of the Biolog data indicated that cation exchange capacity and bicarbonate-extractable K were significantly correlated with the variation in Biolog substrate utilization patterns. Received: 8 March 2000     

Characterization of Soil Physico-Chemical and Microbial Parameters after Revegetation Near Shaoguan Pb/Zn Smelter, Guangdong, P.R. China

The criterion for judging the successful revegetation largely focuses on the aboveground indicators, whereas the information for soil ecosystem during the revegetation is often ignored. To better understand the effects of the revegetation on the development of the soil ecosystem near Shaoguan Pb/Zn Smelter, Guangdong Province of Southern China, we compared the difference of the microbial and physico-chemical parameters between the four revegetated sites and two control sites (bare ground and native forest area). The soil organic C, total N, total P, NH₄-N, NO₃-N, available P, WHC and porosity significantly increased and bulk density decreased in the four revegetated sites compared with those in bare ground, indicating the processive effects of the revegetation on the reestablishment of the soil nutrient pools. The heavy metal contents were higher in the four revegetated sites than in the bare ground, thus the revegetation resulted in the accumulation of heavy metals released from smelter in surface soil. The soil microbial composition and activities, except that the oligotrophic bacterial number decreased over revegetation time, significantly increased in the revegetated sites compared with those in the bare ground, and predominantly correlated with soil organic C, total N, NH₄-N, NO₃-N and WHC. The soil oligotrophic bacteria was negatively related to all individual heavy metal contents, thus was the most sensitive indicator in reflecting heavy metal stress, while other microbial parameters, despite not showing negative relationships to the individual heavy metal contents, were sensitive to the potential availability of Pb and Cu (ratio of available to total heavy metal contents), but less sensitive to those of Zn and Cd. Both the principal component analysis (PCA) and the discriminant analysis (DA) resulted from microbial and physico-chemical datasets not only revealed the shifts of the soil physico-chemical and microbial patterns from the unrevegetated to non-polluted conditions, but also implied the possible loss of effects of revegetation on soil remediation in the sites revegetated for four (RIV) and five (RV) years, respectively.     

黄土丘陵区人工刺槐林恢复过程中土壤氮素与微生物活性的变化

为了探讨不同生长年限的人工刺槐(Robinnia pseudoacacia)林对土壤中氮素组成与微生物活性的影响及机理,本文采用"时空互代"法进行野外选点调查和采样,对典型黄土丘陵区陕西省安塞纸坊沟小流域不同林龄(10 a、15 a、30 a、38 a)人工刺槐林和撂荒地3个土层(0~10 cm、10~30 cm和30~60 cm)中的全氮、铵态氮、硝态氮、有机氮、微生物生物量碳和磷、基础呼吸及基本理化性质进行了研究。结果表明:人工刺槐林地土壤微生物生物量碳、磷含量和微生物熵都显著高于撂荒地(P<0.05)。随着人工刺槐林生长年限的增加,各层土壤铵态氮、硝态氮和有机氮含量均逐渐增加,其中有机氮的增加最显著;土壤微生物生物量碳、磷含量显著增加;微生物熵显著增大而呼吸熵显著减小;土壤有机碳、速效磷含量总体上显著增加(P<0.05);容重和碳氮比则呈下降趋势。随着土层深度的增加,氮素、有机碳、速效磷和微生物生物量碳、磷含量显著减小(P<0.05);容重和pH显著增加。土壤微生物生物量碳、磷和呼吸熵均与有机氮、全氮、硝态氮显著正相关(P<0.05)。分析发现,刺槐的生长促使土壤中微生物可利用碳增加,提高了碳的利用率,使土壤微生物量碳、磷含量增加;微生物活性的提高反过来促进了土壤氮素含量的提高,土壤中有机氮含量显著增加。与10 a生刺槐林相比,30 a生林地土壤表层的全氮含量明显增加,氮素肥力由7级(0.40 g.kg 1)上升为5级(0.87 g.kg 1)水平。     

Plant invasion of native grassland on serpentine soils has no major effects upon selected physical and biological properties

Plant invasions alter soil microbial community composition; this study examined whether invasion-induced changes in the soil microbial community were reflected in soil aggregation, an ecosystem property strongly influenced by microorganisms. Soil aggregation is regulated by many biological factors including roots, arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal hyphae, and microbially-derived carbon compounds. We measured root biomass, fungal-derived glomalin-related soil protein (GRSP), and aggregate mean weight diameter in serpentine soils dominated by an invasive plant (Aegilops triuncialis (goatgrass) or Centaurea solstitialis (yellow starthistle)), or by native plants (Lasthenia californica and Plantago erecta, or Hemizonia congesta). Root biomass tended to increase in invaded soils. GRSP concentrations were lower in goatgrass-dominated soils than native soils. In contrast, starthistle dominated soil contained a higher amount of one fraction of GRSP, easily extractable immunoreactive soil protein (EE-IRSP) and a lower amount of another GRSP fraction, easily extractible Bradford reactive soil protein (EE-BRSP). Soil aggregation increased with goatgrass invasion, but did not increase with starthistle invasion. In highly aggregated serpentine soils, small increases in soil aggregation accompanying plant invasion were not related to changes in GRSP and likely have limited ecological significance.     

黄顶菊(Flaveria bidentis)入侵对土壤微生物功能多样性的影响

外来植物入侵对土壤生物多样性的影响已成为生态学领域的研究热点之一。运用Biolog技术和氯仿熏蒸浸提法研究了黄顶菊入侵对土壤微生物群落功能多样性及土壤微生物量的影响。结果表明,黄顶菊入侵后土壤微生物代谢活性显著升高;土壤微生物群落平均吸光值(AWCD)的变化趋势为:入侵地根际土(RPS)入侵地根围土(BS)未入侵地(CK),且差异显著;而CK的功能多样性指数(H)高于BS,RPS亦高于BS,差异均显著(P0.05)。主成分分析结果表明,黄顶菊入侵使土壤微生物群落的碳源利用方式和代谢功能发生改变。对不同碳源利用的分析结果表明,糖类、氨基酸类、羧酸类和聚合物为土壤微生物利用的主要碳源。入侵样地BS和RPS的微生物量碳分别比CK高27.05%、121.52%;BS和RPS的微生物量氮分别比CK高37.40%、79.80%。相关性分析表明,AWCD与微生物量碳和微生物量氮均呈极显著正相关(P0.01)。由此可知,黄顶菊入侵增强了入侵地土壤微生物代谢活性,降低了土壤微生物群落的功能多样性,增加了土壤微生物量碳、氮水平。     

Elevated CO2 differentially alters belowground plant and soil microbial community structure in reed canary grass-invaded experimental wetlands

Several recent studies have indicated that an enriched atmosphere of carbon dioxide (CO₂) could exacerbate the intensity of plant invasions within natural ecosystems, but little is known of how rising CO₂ impacts the belowground characteristics of these invaded systems. In this study, we examined the effects of elevated CO₂ and nitrogen (N) inputs on plant and soil microbial community characteristics of plant communities invaded by reed canary grass, Phalaris arundinacea L. We grew the invasive grass under two levels of invasion: the invader was either dominant (high invasion) at >90% plant cover or sub-dominant (low invasion) at <50% plant cover. Experimental wetland communities were grown for four months in greenhouses that received either 600 or 365 μl l⁻¹ (ambient) CO₂. Within each of three replicate rooms per CO₂ treatment, the plant communities were grown under high (30 mg l⁻¹) or low (5 mg l⁻¹) N. In contrast to what is often predicted under N limitation, we found that elevated CO₂ increased native graminoid biomass at low N, but not at high N. The aboveground biomass of reed canary grass did not respond to elevated CO₂, despite it being a fast-growing C3 species. Although elevated CO₂ had no impact on the plant biomass of heavily invaded communities, the relative abundance of several soil microbial indicators increased. In contrast, the moderately invaded plant communities displayed increased total root biomass under elevated CO_2, while little impact occurred on the relative abundance of soil microbial indicators. Principal components analysis indicated that overall soil microbial community structure was distinct by CO₂ level for the varying N and invasion treatments. This study demonstrates that even when elevated CO₂ does not have visible effects on aboveground plant biomass, it can have large impacts belowground.     

Microbial activities in forest floor layers under silver birch, Norway spruce and Scots pine

The aim of this study was to compare microbial activities in the litter (L), fermentation (F) and humified (H) layers of the forest floor under silver birch (Betula pendula Roth), Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst) and Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.). Soil pH, C-to-N ratio, respiration rates, concentration of NH₄-N, net N mineralization and nitrification rates, gross NH₄⁺ production and consumption rates and amounts of C (C_mic) and N (N_mic) in the microbial biomass were determined from samples taken from the L, F and H layers under silver birch, Norway spruce and Scots pine. The forest floors under birch and spruce were more active than that under pine, having higher respiration and net N mineralization rates, and higher C_mic and N_mic values than pine forest floor. Differences between tree species were smaller in the H layer than in the L and F layers. The L layer had the highest rates of respiration for all tree species, while rates of net N mineralization were highest in the F layer for birch and spruce. Pine showed negligible net N mineralization in all layers. Concentration of NH₄-N was the best predictor of rate of net N mineralization (r=0.748). In general, C_mic and N_mic were higher in the L and F layers than in the H layer, as were their relative proportions of total C (C_tot) and N (N_tot), respectively. C_mic correlated positively with soil respiration (r=0.980) and N_mic with concentration of NH₄-N (r=0.915).     

Earthworm invasion alters enchytraeid community composition and individual biomass in northern hardwood forests of North America

European earthworms are invading many ecosystems worldwide and fundamentally transform habitats by acting as dominant ecosystem engineers. However, there is little knowledge of the consequences of earthworm invasion on the composition and diversity of native soil organisms. Particularly functionally similar groups, such as enchytraeids (Annelida: Enchytraeidae), may be affected through changes in the chemical and physical properties of the soil, but also due to competition for resources. In 2010–2011, we studied the impact of earthworm invasion on enchytraeids at two sites in the northern hardwood forests of North America: one site within the Chippewa National Forest in northern Minnesota and one site in the Chequamegon-Nicolet National Forest in northern Wisconsin, USA. At each site, three plots were sampled along a transect, representing (1) a non-invaded or very slightly invaded area, (2) the leading edge of earthworm invasion and (3) a heavily invaded area with an established population of the anecic earthworm Lumbricus terrestris (among other species). In total, 29 enchytraeid (morpho)species were identified (some yet to be formally described, several first or second records for the continent); of those 24 occurred at the Minnesota site and 17 at the Wisconsin site. The structure of enchytraeid assemblages differed significantly among the three invasion stages, although this was not equally pronounced at the two sites. Each stage was characterized by one or several indicator species. Mean enchytraeid densities (10,700–30,400 individuals/m²) did not differ significantly among the invasion stages, but were lowest at the leading edge of earthworm invasion at both sites. In the heavily invaded plot at the Minnesota site, the mean enchytraeid density and biomass in L. terrestris middens were significantly higher than in soil in-between the middens. This was due to a pronounced effect of L. terrestris middens in the uppermost 3 cm of soil. Differences in biomass among earthworm invasion stages were most apparent for mean individual biomass. This was significantly higher in the heavily invaded area than at the leading edge or in the non-invaded area at the Minnesota site. Compositional changes of the enchytraeid assemblage are likely to result in changes in the functioning of soil foods webs. Our results suggest that earthworm invasions can cause a loss of native species in soil, including heretofore unknown ones, that might go unnoticed.     

Arylsulfatase activity of soil microbial biomass along a Mediterranean-arid transect

The relationships between arylsulfatase and microbial activity were investigated in regional and microenvironmental scales, at three study sites in Israel, that represent different climatic regions—Mediterranean (sub-humid), mildly arid and arid.Total arylsulfatase activity was divided into extracellular and intracellular (microbial biomass enzyme) activities according to the chloroform-fumigation method. The results show that with increasing aridity, C_org (soil organic carbon), C_mic (soil microbial biomass carbon), N_mic (soil microbial biomass nitrogen) and respiration rate decreased, while C_mic/C_org and metabolic quotient (qCO₂) increased. Total, extracellular and microbial biomass arylsulfatase activities decreased with aridity. Expressed as percentage of total activity, the arylsulfatase activity of microbial biomass in the soil, at 0-2 cm and 5-10 cm depths, accounted for more than 50% of the total, in most measurements. This activity was significantly higher in the arid sites than that found in the Mediterranean one for the 0-2 cm soil. The results indicate the importance of the microflora as an enzyme source in soils, especially in arid climate conditions.Enzyme activity in the different study sites was found to be influenced by microenvironmental conditions. The Mediterranean site showed a much higher enzyme activity under shrubs than that under rock fragments and in bare soil. In the arid site rock fragments created a favorable microenvironment for microbial activity on soil surface, which resulted in a much higher microbial biomass and arylsulfatase activity than that in bare soil.The total, extracellular and intracellular arylsulfatase activities, were significantly correlated with C_org, C_mic, N_mic and respiration rate (p<0.05) at all study sites. The correlation coefficients between microbial biomass and arylsulfatase activity were usually higher than those between organic carbon and enzyme activity, especially in the arid sites. Close relationships between microbial biomass and arylsulfatase activities in all the studied sites supported the hypothesis that C_org content and enzyme activities should be related to each other via microbial biomass. Arylsulfatase activity was found to be a good indicator of microbial one. The regression equations between these factors can be incorporated into models of biogeochemical cycling for their easy method of analysis.     

Effect of invasive Acacia dealbata Link on soil microorganisms as determined by PCR-DGGE

Acacia dealbata Link is an Australian woody legume that has become a serious environmental problem in Northwest Spain where it forms dense monospecific patches modifying the structure of different native ecosystems and threatening native aboveground biodiversity. In spite of the dramatic changes observed in the vegetation of invaded sites little is known about the consequences of invasion for soil microorganisms. To investigate the effect of A. dealbata invasion on the structure of soil fungi and bacteria communities, samples were taken from invaded and non-invaded areas from three different ecosystems in Northwest Spain: pine forest, shrubland and grassland. In each ecosystem type, soil samples were taken in areas of native vegetation, areas invaded by A. dealbata and in the transition zone between native and invaded vegetation. Soil microorganisms were analyzed in the different samples by PCR-DGGE using general primers for eubacteria and fungi. Soil analyses were also performed to evaluate the effect of A. dealbata invasion on soil fertility.The invasion by A. dealbata consistently increased soil N, C, organic matter and exchangeable P content in the three studied ecosystems. A clear effect of the invasion on the overall structure of microorganism communities was only observed in the shrubland where soil fungal communities in the invaded and transition areas clustered together and apart from the native soil. Significant differences in soil microorganisms richness and diversity between invaded and not invaded soils were only found in the grassland. Grassland invasion by A. dealbata lead to a significant increase of bacterial richness and to a significant reduction in fungal richness and diversity. Our results show that although the changes on soil chemistry due to A. dealbata invasion are consistent among the studied ecosystems, the effect on soil microorganisms depends on the ecosystem type affected by the invasion.     

An aboveground–belowground assessment of ecosystem properties associated with exotic annual brome invasion

Exotic annual brome invasion has been well studied in western North American rangelands, particularly for Bromus tectorum L. invasion in sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata) grasslands. We examined both aboveground and belowground properties in native sagebrush grassland and adjacent areas dominated by exotic annual bromes (B. tectorum L. and Bromus japonicus Thunb.) to better understand the fundamental ecological differences between native and invaded areas. Field sites were located in north central Wyoming, USA, and plots were established in areas that had been historically subject to wildfire and either (1) recolonized by native sagebrush grassland vegetation or (2) invaded by exotic annual bromes. We employed measures of vegetation community structure as well as soil physical, chemical, and microbiological properties. Plots with greater than 20 % exotic annual brome cover had significantly less cover of all native vegetation functional groups resulting in lower richness and evenness than native plots. Invaded plots also had low diversity plant communities that were continuous and uniform across space. Soils beneath invaded plant communities had higher infiltration rates, higher levels of total nitrogen, and a lower C/N ratio than the native soils. Invaded soils also had 90–96 % lower abundance of all soil microbial groups measured by phospholipid fatty acid. We conclude that areas dominated by exotic annual bromes display different aboveground and belowground properties compared to the native community, and these changes possibly include spatial and temporal shifts in soil resources and organic matter processing.     

Effect of nitrogen fertilization and irrigation on soil microbial activities and population dynamics — a field study

In a field experiment, net nitrogen (N) mineralization and immobilization were studied in relation to: 1) population dynamics and activities of N-metabolizing soil microbial communities, 2) changes in substrate-induced respiration (SIR) and 3) potential urease acitvity. Nitrogen fertilization (80 kg NO₃-N ha^-1) without irrigation induced additional N mineralization up to 280 kg N ha^-1. Net N-mineralization was weakly correlated to cell numbers of ammonifying and NH₄⁺-oxidizing microorganisms. Potential urease activity, respiration activity, and substrate-induced respiration activity were not correlated with the amount of mineralized nitrogen. Irrigation significantly increased potential urease activity of the soil microflora. Substrate induced respiration activity and basal respiration activity of the soil microflora were highest in the unfertilized and non irrigated treatment. But greatest differences were detected between the two sampling dates. NO₂^--oxidizing and ammonifying microbial populations increased, while populations of NH₄⁺-oxidizing and denitrifying microorganisms decreased with time. The results of this study demonstrate the interaction of nitrogen fertilizer application and irrigation on population dynamics of N-transforming soil microorganisms and microbial activities under field conditions. Detailed microbiological investigations of this type improve our understanding of nitrogen transformations in soil and suggest possible reasons of nitrogen losses, so that N fertilizer can be used more effectively and N losses be reduced.