Comparative molluscicidal action of extract of Ginko biloba sarcotesta, arecoline and niclosamide on snail hosts of Schistosoma japonicum

In search for new local plant molluscicides for the control of the vectors of schistosomiasis, we compared the molluscicidal action of the extract of Ginkgo biloba sarcotesta by benzinum (EGSB) to that of arecoline (ARE) and niclosamide (NIC) against Oncomelania hupensis snails. NIC showed the highest toxicity on snails with 24 h LC₅₀ vales of 0.12 mg/L and LC₉₀ of 0.98 mg/L, while the LC₅₀ and LC₉₀ of EGSB were much lower than that of ARE. Sublethal in vivo 24 h exposure to 40% and 80% LC₅₀ of NIC, EGSB and ARE altered the activities of different enzymes in different body tissues of snails. EGSB could significantly inhibit Choline esterase (ChE), Alanine aminotransferase (ALT), Alkaline phosphatase (ALP) and Malic dehydrogenase (MDH) activities both in the cephalopodium and liver. ARE could significantly cause a reduction in ChE, ALP activities in the cephalopodium and ChE, ALT, ALP, Succinodehydrogenase (SDH), MDH activities in the liver. NIC significantly altered activities of ChE, ALT, ALP, SDH, and MDH in the cephalopodium and ChE, ALT, ALP, SDH activities in the liver. All molluscicides could not affect Lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) activity in the cephalopodium and the liver. Maximum inhibition of ALT and MDH activities was found in the cephalopodium and liver of snails treated with 80% of 24 h LC₅₀ of EGSB. However, NIC and ARE caused maximum reduction in ALP and SDH activities, respectively. The results indicated that molluscicidal action of EGSB was different to that of ARE and NIC in some extent.     

Evaluation of molluscicidal activities of Arisaema tubers extracts on the snail Oncomelania hupensis

Four extracts of Arisaema erubescens tubers by acetic acetal (AAE), benzinum (BZE), n-butanol (NBE) and chloroform (CFE) were obtained to evaluate their molluscicidal activities against the snail Oncomlania hupensis. The responses of choline esterase (ChE), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), esterase (EST), superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) to the extracts (NBE) were also investigated. In the four extracts (AAE, BZE, NBE and CFE), NBE showed the highest toxicity on the snails after 48 h exposure. NBE also showed the time- and concentration-dependent effect, for example, the LC₉₀ values of the NBE were decreased from 365.5 mg/L (24 h) to 36.4 mg/L (96 h). At the end of exposure to NBE (LC₅₀ concentration), the activities of ChE and ALP in snail tissues (cephalopodium and liver) decreased significantly. Isozyme electrophoresis profiles indicated that responses of isozymes (EST, SOD and GSH-Px) to NBE were more intense in liver than in cephalopodium. After 72 h exposure to NBE, the EST activity in snail liver decreased and some enzyme bands (EST1 and EST4) disappeared. But the activities of SOD 1 and GSH 2 in liver increased after 48 h exposure. The results indicated that NBE was the highest toxic component in the four extracts. The decline of the detoxification ability and the oxidative damage in snail tissues might be the main reason for the molluscicidal activities.     

Effects of the molluscicidal agent GA-C13:0, a natural occurring ginkgolic acid, on snail mitochondria

Ginkgolic acids (GAs) from the leaves and sarcotesta of Ginkgo biloba L. represent a new kind of molluscicide agent. To date, the mechanism(s) for the observed molluscicidal activity remains largely unknown. Since GA-C_13:0 has effectively inhibited snail mobility, we examined the effects of the compound on mitochondrial function and gene expression as compared to niclosamide. Snail mitochondrial damage induced by GAs was tested using transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and gene-expression profiling of five mitochondrial enzymes using real-time PCR. GA-C_13:0 was found to have a pronounced effect on snail mitochondria with gross ultrastructural changes. In addition, GA-C_13:0 was also found to inhibit the gene expression of four mitochondrial enzymes including cytochrome c oxidase, adenosine triphosphate (ATP) synthase, cytochrome b and dihydronicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH) dehydrogenase. In contrast, niclosamide did not show such effects on mitochondrial function and gene expression, suggesting that the molluscicidal activity of GA-C_13:0 and niclosamide differed. Our results imply that snail mitochondria are a potential target for the molluscicidal activity of ginkgolic acids.     

The effect of some Frescon analogs on the aquatic snail,Lymnaea stagnalis: III. Relation of some physical and chemical properties to neurotoxicity and molluscicidal effectiveness

The hydrolysis rates, particle sizes in suspension, and the relative lipophilicity of Frescon and its analogs were determined and compared with their neurotoxic and molluscicidal effectiveness. The hydrolysis rates of these compounds were closely correlated to their neurotoxicity, and, with one exception, to their molluscicidal effectiveness as well. The aberrant behavior of the one analog could not be attributed to a retarded penetration rate or an excessively large particle size in suspension. There appears to be some, as yet, unidentified factor which determines the molluscicidal activity of this analog. However, it is likely that both neurotoxicity and molluscicidal action are the result of a nucleophilic displacement reaction, although at different targets. Also, differences in the relative molluscicidal effectiveness of the Frescon analogs at different concentrations were possibly due to variations in particle size, which appears to be a function of the type and amount of emulsifier used.     

Comparative aggressiveness of standard and variant hybrid alder phytophthoras, Phytophthora cambivora and other Phytophthora species on bark of Alnus, Quercus and other woody hosts

Pathogenicity tests were carried out on the bark of Alnus glutinosa with 19 isolates of the standard (near-tetraploid) hybrid alder phytophthora, nine isolates representing its known heteroploid variants and 11 isolates of P. cambivora , a probable parent species of the hybrid. Over a 4-year period, 12 experiments were conducted on living alder logs incubated at 20°C. Most isolates of the standard hybrid and those of the 'Dutch variant' were highly aggressive to alder bark. Isolates of the 'Swedish', 'UK' and 'German variants', and of P. cambivora , were only weakly pathogenic. Also, isolates of P. fragariae , P. cinnamomi , P . sp. 'O-group', P. cryptogea , P. megasperma , P. gonapodyides and P. citricola were either weakly or nonpathogenic. Rates of lesion development were greatest on logs cut during July–October, slower on logs cut between November and March and zero on logs cut during April, indicating a strong seasonal effect. Other evidence indicated that lesion development was subject to critical thresholds of host resistance. The standard hybrid was nonpathogenic to the bark of four other hardwood and two conifer species, indicating that it is relatively host specific. In contrast, P. cambivora was an aggressive pathogen on live bark of Quercus and Castanea . The significance of these results is discussed.     

Comparative antifungal effect and mode of action of tetraconazole on Ustilago maydis

Tetraconazole, a new, recently introduced antifungal triazole, has been assayed in parallel with a number of standard analogues on various sensitive strains of Ustilago maydis. The values of EC₅₀ and EC₉₀ tetraconazole concentrations, determined on strain ATCC 14826 in agar, were 0.5 × 10⁻⁶ and 3.5 × 10⁻⁵ , respectively, in reasonable agreement with those needed to inhibit by 50% and 90%, respectively, the ergosterol biosynthesis in broth cultures. Squalene and 12 sterols have been extracted from the latter, characterized and quantified. Accumulation of 14α-methylsterols and reduction of ergosterol and other late precursors are consistent with the inhibition of 14α-demethylase caused by the title compound.     

不同寄主对脐腹小蠹取食和繁殖的影响

脐腹小蠹是新疆果树林木的重要害虫,研究不同寄主对脐腹小蠹取食和繁殖的影响可为脐腹小蠹的综合治理提供参考。田间诱集试验表明,脐腹小蠹为害‘赛买提'杏、扁桃和新疆桃,不为害垂柳和沙枣,在春榆上也诱集到少量成虫,但其数量显著低于‘赛买提'杏、扁桃和新疆桃。室内饲养研究表明,‘赛买提'杏、扁桃和春榆上均有脐腹小蠹取食为害,其中‘赛买提'杏上脐腹小蠹子代数量最多,成虫蛀道长度最长,侵入孔数最多,与扁桃和春榆差异显著。综上所述,脐腹小蠹在‘赛买提'杏、扁桃、新疆桃、春榆上均可完成发育,但在4种寄主上的子代数量以及对4种寄主的为害程度不同,‘赛买提'杏是脐腹小蠹生长发育及繁殖的最适寄主,其次是扁桃、新疆桃,脐腹小蠹也可为害春榆。     

温度胁迫对福寿螺生长、摄食及存活的影响

为探讨福寿螺对温度的耐受性及其在我国南方稻区成灾的原因,通过高温(30、33、36、39、42℃)和低温(6、9、12、15℃)胁迫处理,对福寿螺幼螺的特定生长率、摄食率及存活率等指标进行测定.结果表明,超过福寿螺幼螺适宜生长温度的高温胁迫,对其特定生长率、摄食率及存活率的影响差异显著,三者均随温度的升高而降低.福寿螺对高温的耐受性较强,36℃条件下处理21天仍有50%的生存率,42℃下平均生存时间为2.57天.福寿螺不耐低温,在偏离适温的低温下,福寿螺生长缓慢,特定生长率、摄食率及存活率下降,6℃时7天内全部死亡,致死中时间为4天.     

不同寄主对瓜实蝇和南亚实蝇生长发育和产卵选择的影响

为探讨瓜实蝇Zeugodacus cucurbitae和南亚实蝇Zeugodacus tau对寄主植物的选择性及寄主植物对其种群的适合度。在室内观察记录瓜实蝇和南亚实蝇幼虫在黄瓜Cucumis sativus、丝瓜Luffa aegyptiaca和西葫芦Cucurbita pepo 3种寄主果实上的幼虫历期、蛹历期和存活率等生长发育参数,同时测定两种实蝇成虫在3个黄瓜品种‘A38翠玉’‘台湾大黄瓜’和‘唐山秋瓜’有无果皮两种状态下的产卵量。结果表明,瓜实蝇和南亚实蝇幼虫取食同种果实或同种实蝇取食不同寄主果实后幼虫的发育历期、化蛹率和存活率均无显著差异;但取食西葫芦后,两种实蝇的蛹历期分别为12.30 d和12.77 d,均显著长于取食黄瓜和丝瓜。且南亚实蝇的羽化率为70.59%,显著高于瓜实蝇在3种寄主果实上的羽化率。不同品种黄瓜中,瓜实蝇偏向于选择‘A38翠玉’品种产卵,在果实完好和去果皮条件下日均产卵量分别达87.50粒和53.75粒,均显著高于南亚实蝇在3个黄瓜品种上的日均产卵量;南亚实蝇更偏好在去果皮的‘A38翠玉’果实上产卵,日均产卵量达44.25粒。对同一黄瓜品种,瓜实蝇在...     

Effects of metaldehyde and acetaldehyde on feeding responses and neuronal activity in the snail,lymnaea stagnalis

The pond snail Lymnaea stagnalis was fed on maize pellets containing metaldehyde. With increasing concentration of metaldehyde there was a decrease in the meal length, number of bites per meal and amount of pellet eaten. The irregularity of biting and the amount of time spent pausing during the meal increased. Meals on maize pellets in the presence of acetaldehyde (one of the metabolites of metaldehyde) were shorter than control meals on maize pellets alone. The symptoms of poisoning after ingestion of metaldehyde or in the presence of acetaldehyde were similar. There was an increase in mucus secretion. Animals showed muscular spasms, undirected mouthing movements and uncoordinated locomotion. This was followed by a period of immobility. The isolated central nervous system of L. stagnalis was used to study the effects of metaldehyde and acetaldehyde on the neural activity underlying feeding. Application of metaldehyde or acetaldehyde led to an increase in firing activity and development of paroxysmal depolarising shifts in buccal motoneurons. It is argued that this type of activity could explain some of the symptoms of poisoning seen in the whole animal after ingestion of metaldehyde, and that acetaldehyde may be responsible for some of the toxic effects of metaldehyde. These results suggest that the CNS of L. stagnalis provides a useful model for screening molluscicides for their effects on a functional neuronal network.     

Proteomic studies of phytopathogenic fungi,oomycetes and their interactions with hosts

Proteomics, the systematic analysis of the proteome, is a powerful tool in the post-genomic era. Proteomics studies have examined global changes in proteomes of phytopathogenic fungi, oomycetes and their hosts during compatible or incompatible interactions. This article compiles proteomics reports in order to decipher the molecular mechanisms underlying fungal development (infection-related morphogenesis), fungal or oomycete—host plant interactions, and phytopathogenesis.     

Sporulation potential,symptom expression and detection of Phytophthora ramorum on larch needles and other foliar hosts

Phytophthora ramorum has caused extensive dieback and mortality of commercially grown Japanese larch (Larix kaempferi) in many parts of the UK, as infected foliage generates spores that then cause bark lesions and girdling cankers on trees. Following inoculation, individual needles of Japanese, European (L. decidua) and hybrid (L. × eurolepis) larch infected with P. ramorum can produce thousands of sporangia. Mean numbers of sporangia ranged from 806 to 1778 per cm² (hybrid larch and Japanese larch, respectively), surpassing mean sporulation levels on foliar hosts previously associated with P. ramorum outbreaks in Britain, namely Rhododendron ponticum, Castanea sativa and Vaccinium myrtillus. Sporulation on larch even exceeded that of California bay laurel (Umbellularia californica), which drives the sudden oak death epidemic in California. Inoculation of foliage selected at different times of year revealed that foliage age significantly affected sporulation levels, but this varied with host species. However, symptom development and sporulation were often not correlated. Symptoms on larch were frequently insignificant or even absent at certain times of year, with sometimes the only evidence of infection being the emergence of sporangia from needles, without any sign of discolouration or necrosis. Plating infected but symptomless needles onto Phytophthora selective medium also often failed to yield the pathogen. Symptomless infection of larch needles apparently occurs, but is only detectable with microscopy. More generally, it is suggested that diagnosis of Phytophthora infection in conifers is often underestimated due to isolation difficulties and delayed symptom expression.     

Genetic diversity of Spiroplasma citri strains from different regions, hosts, and isolation dates

Spiroplasma citri, a phloem-limited pathogen, causes citrus stubborn disease (CSD). Losses due to CSD in California orchards have grown over the past decade. To investigate the possibility of introduction or emergence of a new strain, a study of genetic diversity among S. citri strains from various locations was conducted using random amplified polymorphism DNA-polymerase chain reaction (RAPD-PCR) of 35 strains cultured from 1980 to 1993, and of 35 strains cultured from 2005 to 2006. Analysis using 20 primer pairs revealed considerable diversity among strains. However, no unique genetic signatures were associated with recently collected strains compared with those collected 15 to 28 years ago, and no geographically associated pattern was distinguishable. S. citri strains from carrot and daikon radish contain some unique DNA fragments, suggesting some host plant influence. Multiple strains from single trees also showed genetic diversity. Sequencing of five RAPD bands that differed among strains showed that diversity-related gene sequences include virus fragments, and fragments potentially encoding a membrane lipoprotein, a DNA modification enzyme, and a mobilization element. No differences in colony morphology were observed among the strains. The lack of correlation between PCR patterns and isolation date or collection site is inconsistent with the hypothesis that recent infections are due to the introduction or emergence of novel pathogen strains.     

Population structure,pathogenicity, and fungicide sensitivity of Colletotrichum siamense from different hosts in Hainan,China

Areca palm, rubber tree, and coffee are always planted adjacent to each other or intercropped with each other, and Colletotrichum siamense was found to be the dominant species of Colletotrichum from these crops in Hainan, China. To study the population structure, pathogenicity, and fungicide sensitivity of C. siamense from these three crops in Hainan, isolates were first identified by their morphological characteristics and multilocus phylogeny. Then both permutational multivariate analysis of variance (PERMANOVA) and pairwise F_ST analysis showed that the original host and geographical origin (counties) had significant effects on genetic variation in the C. siamense population, explaining 5.6% and 16.3% of genetic variation, respectively. There were significant genetic differentiations between coffee and rubber tree populations but the genetic differentiation was small (F_ST = 0.04), while significant differentiations were observed among all populations from different counties except those between Haikou and Chengmai. Pathogenicity analysis using artificial inoculation showed that isolates had significantly higher disease incidence and diseased lesion diameter on wounded leaves than on nonwounded leaves. However, the original host of an isolate and geographical origin did not significantly affect the pathogenicity of the C. siamense populations from these three hosts. In vitro tests showed that there were no significant differences in the sensitivity of C. siamense populations to carbendazim, prochloraz, difenoconazole, and propiconazole from different original hosts and geographical origins. The present study suggests that host specialization of C. siamense has not occurred yet in coffee, rubber tree, and areca palm.     

芝麻花对稻螟赤眼蜂寄生和扩散能力的影响

芝麻是一种适合于稻田生态系统的蜜源植物,但其对稻田优势赤眼蜂稻螟赤眼蜂的作用未有系统的研究。本文在室内和大田的条件下考察了芝麻花对稻螟赤眼蜂寄生力和扩散能力的影响。室内结果表明,芝麻花可以显著的提高稻螟赤眼蜂对米蛾卵的寄生力。同时芝麻花显著影响了稻螟赤眼蜂的初始扩散能力,初始起飞蜂比例从71.4%下降至50.5%,但总的扩散蜂比例从91.9%增加至95.4%。田间结果显示田埂种植芝麻花可以提高稻螟赤眼蜂的寄生能力约30%,且更多的蜂扩散至距田埂20~25 m的距离。总之,芝麻花可显著的提高稻螟赤眼蜂寄生和扩散能力。     

Phytophthora infestans in a subtropical region: survival on tomato debris, temporal dynamics of airborne sporangia and alternative hosts

Little is known about inoculum dynamics of late blight caused by Phytophthora infestans in tropical/subtropical areas, particularly in Brazil. The objectives of the present study were to assess (i) the survival of the pathogen on stems, leaflets and tomato fruits, either buried or not in soil; (ii) the pathogenicity of P . infestans to mostly solanaceous plant species commonly found in Brazil that could act as inoculum reservoir; and (iii) the temporal dynamics of airborne sporangia. Phytophthora infestans survived in tomato plant parts for less than 36 days under greenhouse and field conditions. In greenhouse tests, pathogen structures were detected earlier on crop debris kept in dry than in wet soil conditions. Isolates of two clonal lineages of P. infestans , US-1 from tomato, and BR-1 from potato, were inoculated on 43 plant species. In addition to potato and tomato, Petunia  ×  hybrida and Nicotiana benthamiana were susceptible to the pathogen. Airborne inoculum was monitored with Rotorod and Burkard spore traps as well as with tomato and potato trap plants. Sporangia were sampled in most weeks throughout 2004 and in the first two weeks of 2005. Under tropical/subtropical conditions, airborne inoculum is abundant and is more important to late blight epidemics than inoculum from crop debris or alternative hosts.     

Downy mildew of Cucurbits (Pseudoperonospora Cubensis): the Fungus and its hosts,distribution, epidemiology and control

Taxonomy of the genusPseudoperonospora, morphology ofPseudoperonospora cubensis (Berk, et Curt.) Rostow. and occurrence of its oospores, are described briefly. A list is presented of over 40 cucurbitaceous host species, representing about 20 genera, on whichP. cubensis has been recorded. Two or more races exist in Japan and the United States, but not in Europe or the Middle East. The distribution ofP. cubensis is widest on all continents on cucumbers (70 countries) and muskmelon (50 countries); onCucurbita and watermelons it extends to about 40 and 25 countries, respectively. P. cubensis may overwinter as oospores, though this seems rare, and on wild hosts or crops grown in the open or under cover. Airborne sporangia may also reach cooler countries from regions with mild winters. Apart from the leaf wetness essential for infection, the factors determining disease progress are: rate of foliage growth and physiological age of the host; amount of primary inoculum available, light, and the rate at which lesions necrotize. The interaction of these factors is described for early, mid-season, and late crops. Losses caused byP. cubensis depend on the growth stage at which the crop is attacked, and on the rate of foliage and pathogen development. Breeding has produced downy mildew resistant lines of cucumbers, used chiefly in the United States, and some resistant lines of melons and watermelons. The most important agricultural practices used to restrict downy mildew development are proper irrigation management and avoidance of sowing in proximity to infected crops. Success of control by protectant chemicals depends largely on proper timing of applications. Proximity of inoculum sources, hours of leaf wetness, age of crop, and irrigation practices are the principal factors that determine when to begin treatments. These factors and rate of leaf formation determine the frequency of applications. Application of systemic fungicides is much easier to time correctly.