Diagnosis of gastrointestinal parasites in reptiles: comparison of two coprological methods

Background

Exotic reptiles have become increasingly common domestic pets worldwide and are well known to be carriers of different parasites including some with zoonotic potential. The need of accurate diagnosis of gastrointestinal endoparasite infections in domestic reptiles is therefore essential, not only for the well-being of captive reptiles but also for the owners. Here, two different approaches for the detection of parasite stages in reptile faeces were compared: a combination of native and iodine stained direct smears together with a flotation technique (CNF) versus the standard SAF-method.

Results

A total of 59 different reptile faeces (20 lizards, 22 snakes, 17 tortoises) were coprologically analyzed by the two methods for the presence of endoparasites. Analyzed reptile faecal samples contained a broad spectrum of parasites (total occurence 93.2%, n = 55) including different species of nematodes (55.9%, n = 33), trematodes (15.3%, n = 9), pentastomids (3.4%, n = 2) and protozoans (47.5%, n = 28). Associations between the performances of both methods to detect selected single parasite stages or groups of such were evaluated by Fisher''s exact test and marginal homogeneity was tested by the McNemar test. In 88.1% of all examined samples (n = 52, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 77.1 - 95.1%) the two diagnostic methods rendered differing results, and the McNemar test for paired observations showed highly significant differences of the detection frequency (P < 0.0001).

Conclusion

The combination of direct smears/flotation proved superior in the detection of flagellates trophozoites, coccidian oocysts and nematode eggs, especially those of oxyurids. SAF-technique was superior in detecting larval stages and trematode eggs, but this advantage failed to be statistically significant (P = 0.13). Therefore, CNF is the recommended method for routine faecal examination of captive reptiles while the SAF-technique is advisable as additional measure particularly for wild caught animals and individuals which are to be introduced into captive collections.     

Correlation analysis of the total IgY level in hen serum,egg yolk and offspring serum

The correlation between IgY levels of the serum and the yolk has been well documented in wild and domestic birds. The levels of total yolk IgY can be an index of the general health status of birds and may contribute to breeding programs when fitness of the offspring is a concern. We measured the levels of total serum IgY and yolk IgY in three different breeds (White Leghorn, Silkie and Dongxiang blue-shell) using indirect ELISA, and found that there was a significantly positive correlation between the levels of total serum IgY and total yolk IgY in all three breeds (White Leghorn: r = 0.404, P < 0.001, n = 100; Silkie: r = 0.561, P < 0.001, n = 70; Dongxiang blue-shell: r = 0.619, P < 0.001, n = 30). We also measured the total serum IgY levels in the 3-day-old offspring hatched from the Silkie hens and results were significantly correlated for serum IgY levels (r = 0.535, P < 0.001, n = 70) and the yolk IgY levels (r = 0.481, P < 0.001, n = 70). The regression analysis showed simple linear regression between IgY levels in hen serum, yolk and offspring serum. Our results suggest that total IgY level could be used as an index for chicken fitness.     

Etiology and outcome of extreme neutrophilic leukocytosis: A multi‐institutional retrospective study of 269 dogs

BackgroundThe magnitude of diagnostic abnormalities can influence the perception of clinical outcome. Extreme neutrophilic leukocytosis (ENL) is an uncommon finding caused by markedly increased granulopoiesis. A lack of recent, large‐scale studies limits our understanding of the importance, causation, and prognosis associated with ENL in dogs.Hypothesis/ObjectivesDescribe disease categories (DC) identified in dogs with ENL and identify variables associated with survival. We hypothesized that factors including fever, segmented and band neutrophil counts, and DC would be negatively associated with survival.AnimalsTwo‐hundred sixty‐nine dogs with ENL (segmented neutrophils ≥50 × 10³ cells/μL) presented to the veterinary teaching hospitals at Auburn University (n = 164), the University of Missouri (n = 81), and Oklahoma State University (n = 24) between January 1, 2009 and December 31, 2019.MethodsRetrospective study. Demographic data and outcome variables including temperature, CBC findings, DC, duration of hospitalization (DOH) and outcome were acquired from the medical record. Statistical analyses included chi‐squared and Kruskal‐Wallis tests, and Pearson product moment correlations with a P < .05 significance level.ResultsMortality was 41%. Survival differed with DC (P = .002). Mortality was higher (P < .05) in dogs with neoplasia (56.2%) vs immune‐mediated disease (20.5%) or tissue damage/necrosis (19%). Weight (P = .001, r = −0.14) and total neutrophil count (P = .04, r = −0.02) were weakly negatively associated with survival whereas DOH was weakly positively associated with survival (P = .03, r = 0.14).Conclusions and Clinical ImportanceMortality in dogs with ENL is high but differed according to DC. Only weak correlations between clinical or clinicopathologic variables and mortality were identified. Extreme neutrophilic leukocytosis should be interpreted in conjunction with the underlying disease process, and not broadly used to predict clinical outcome.     

Expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase in macrophages inversely correlates with parasitism of lymphoid tissues in dogs with visceral leishmaniasis

Background

There are only a few studies reporting the role of nitric oxide metabolites for controlling macrophage intracellular parasitism, and these are controversial. Therefore, the present study aimed to evaluate the expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) in the lymph nodes and spleen of dogs affected by visceral leishmaniasis through immunohistochemistry and to determine its correlation with tissue parasite burden and serum interferon (IFN)-γ levels. Twenty-eight dogs were selected and assigned to one of two groups, symptomatic (n = 18) and asymptomatic (n = 10), according to clinical status and laboratory evaluation. A negative control group (n = 6) from a non-endemic region for visceral leishmaniasis was included as well.

Results

Parasite density (amastigotes/mm²) was similar between clinical groups in the lymph nodes (P = 0.2401) and spleen (P = 0.8869). The density of iNOS⁺ cells was higher in infected dogs compared to controls (P < 0.05), without a significant difference in lymph node (P = 0.3257) and spleen (P = 0.5940) densities between symptomatic and asymptomatic dogs. A positive correlation was found between the number of iNOS⁺ cells in lymph nodes and interferon-γ levels (r = 0.3776; P = 0.0303), and there was a negative correlation between parasites and iNOS⁺ cell densities both in lymph nodes (r = −0.5341; P = 0.0034) and spleen (r = −0.4669; P = 0.0329).

Conclusion

The negative correlation observed between tissue parasitism and the expression of iNOS may be a reflection of NO acting on the control of parasites.     

Outcomes of esophageal and gastric bone foreign bodies in dogs

BackgroundBone foreign bodies are commonly encountered in small animal practice. Esophageal bone foreign bodies (E‐bFBs) warrant removal, whereas gastric bone foreign bodies might not.ObjectivesDescribe management and outcomes for dogs with esophageal or gastric bone foreign bodies.AnimalsOne hundred twenty‐nine dogs with esophageal (n = 45) or gastric (n = 84) bone foreign bodies.MethodsRetrospective review of medical records.ResultsDogs with E‐bFBs were younger than dogs with gastric bone foreign bodies (median age esophageal, 4 years [IQR 2‐8]; median age gastric, 6 years [IQR 3‐10]; P = .03), and had a higher bone cross‐sectional area relative to body weight (median esophageal, 98.21 mm²/kg [IQR 48.25‐142.6]; median gastric, 28.6 mm²/kg [IQR 17.25‐64.28]; P < .001). Forty‐two of 45 esophageal foreign bodies were resolved non‐surgically and 3 by esophagotomy. Esophageal erosions were more likely with distal entrapment (OR 12.88, [95% CI 31.95‐129.29], P = .01) and longer duration (OR 18.82 [95% CI 2.22‐273.97], P = .01). Sixty‐two of 84 bone gastric foreign bodies were left in situ. Endoscopic removal was successful in 20 of 22 (91%; 95% CI 70‐99) attempts.Conclusions and Clinical ImportanceWhile all E‐bFBs were dislodged either by advancement into the stomach, endoscopic removal, or esophagotomy, the majority of gastric bone foreign bodies were left in situ for dissolution, with no reported complications. Gastric advancement of E‐bFBs should be considered when oral removal is not feasible, and dissolution can be considered even with large bones.     

Evaluation of steroidogenic capacity after follicle stimulating hormone stimulation in bovine granulosa cells of Revalor 200? implanted heifers

Background

Heifers not used as breeding stock are often implanted with steroids to increase growth efficiency thereby altering hormone profiles and potentially changing the environment in which ovarian follicles develop. Because bovine granulosa cell culture is a commonly used technique and often bovine ovaries are collected from abattoirs with no record of implant status, the objective of this study was to determine if the presence of an implant during bovine granulosa cell development impacts follicle stimulating hormone-regulated steroidogenic enzyme expression. Paired ovaries were collected from 16 feedlot heifers subjected to 1 of 3 treatments: non-implanted (n = 5), Revalor 200 for 28 d (n = 5), or Revalor 200 for 84 d (n = 6). Small follicle (1 to 5 mm) granulosa cells were isolated from each pair and incubated with phosphate buffered saline (n = 16) or 100 ng/mL follicle stimulating hormone (n = 16) for 24 h.

Results

Granulosa cells of implanted heifers treated with follicle stimulating hormone produced medium concentrations of progesterone similar (P = 0.22) to non-implanted heifers, while medium estradiol concentrations were increased (P < 0.10) at 28 and 84 d compared to non-implanted heifers indicating efficacy of treatment. Additionally, real-time PCR analysis in response to follicle stimulating hormone treatment demonstrated a decrease in steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (P = 0.05) mRNA expression in heifers implanted for 84 d and an increase in P450 side chain cleavage mRNA in granulosa cells of heifers implanted for 28 (P < 0.10) or 84 d (P < 0.05) compared to non-implanted females. However, no difference in expression of 3-beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (P = 0.57) and aromatase (P = 0.23) were demonstrated in implanted or non-implanted heifers.

Conclusions

These results indicate follicles which develop in the presence of high concentrations of androgenic and estrogenic steroids via an implant tend to demonstrate an altered capacity to respond to follicle stimulating hormone stimulation. Thus, efforts should be made to avoid the use of implanted heifers to study steroidogenesis in small follicle granulosa cell culture systems.     

Effects of creep feeding and supplemental glutamine or glutamine plus glutamate (Aminogut) on pre- and post-weaning growth performance and intestinal health of piglets

Background

Creep feeding is used to stimulate piglet post-weaning feed consumption. L-Glutamine (GLN) is an important source of fuel for intestinal epithelial cells. The objective of this study was to determine the impact of creep feeding and adding GLN or AminoGut (AG; containing glutamine + glutamate) to pre- and post-weaning diets on pig performance and intestinal health. Litters (N = 120) were allotted to four treatments during 14–21 d of lactation: 1) No creep feed (NC, n = 45); 2) creep fed control diet (CFCD, n = 45); 3) creep fed 1% GLN (CFGLN, n = 15); 4) creep fed .88% AG (CFAG, n = 15). After weaning, the NC and CFCD groups were sub-divided into three groups (n = 15 each), receiving either a control nursery diet (NC-CD, CFCD-CD) or a diet supplemented with either GLN (NC-GLN, CFCD-GLN) or with AG (NC-AG, CFCD-AG). Litters that were creep fed with diets containing GLN or AG also were supplemented with those amino acids in the nursery diets (CFGLN-GLN, CFAG-AG). Glutamine was added at 1% in all three post-weaning diet phases and AG was added at .88% in phase 1 and 2 and at .66% in phase 3.

Results

Feed conversion (feed/gain) showed means among treatment means close to significance (P = 0.056) and Tukey’s test for pairwise mean comparisons showed that Pigs in the CFGLN-GLN group had the best feed conversion (feed/gain) in the first three-week period post-weaning, exceeding (P = 0.044) controls (CFCD-CD) by 34%. The NC-AG group had (P = 0.02) the greatest feed intake in the last three week of the study, exceeding controls (CFCD-CD) by 12%. CFGLN-GLN, CFCD-GLN and sow reared (SR) pigs had the greatest (P = 0.049) villi height exceeding the CFCD-AG group by 18%, 20% and 19% respectively. The CFAG-AG group had the deepest (P = 0.001) crypts among all treatments. CFGLN-GLN, CFCD-GLN and SR groups had the greatest (P = 0.001) number of cells proliferating (PCNA) exceeding those in the NC-CD group by 43%, 54% and 63% respectively. Sow reared pigs showed the greatest (P = 0.001) intestinal absorption capacity for xylose and mannitol.

Conclusion

Supplementation of creep feed and nursery diets with GLN and/or AminoGut in the first three week improved feed conversion possibly due to improved intestinal health.     

Salmonella isolated from individual reptiles and environmental samples from terraria in private households in Sweden

Background

This study investigates Salmonella spp. isolated from privately kept reptiles and from environmental samples such as bedding materials or water from the floor of the enclosures (terraria). It also compares isolation of Salmonella using Modified Semisolid Rappaport-Vassiliadis (MSRV) medium or selective enrichment in Rappaport-Vassiliadis-Soya (RVS) pepton broth. Cloacal swabs or swabs from the cloacal area were collected from 63 individual reptiles belonging to 14 households. All reptiles were from different terraria and from 62 of these, environmental samples were also collected. Sampling were done by the reptile owners according to written instructions and sent by mail immediately after sampling. All but three samples were analyzed within 24 h after collection. Colonies suspected for Salmonella were tested for agglutination and serotyped using the White-Kauffmann-Le Minor scheme. The relative sensitivity (se) and specificity (sp) for MSRV compared with RVS, and the agreement coefficient kappa (κ) were calculated.

Results

Salmonella was isolated from 50/63 (80%) terraria, either from the reptiles (31/63; 49%) or from bedding material (39/62; 63%). The most common subspecies was Salmonella enterica subspecies enterica followed by S. enterica subspecies diarizonae. In reptiles, the most common S. enterica subspecies enterica serovars were Java (n = 4) and Fluntern (n = 4), compared with the serovars Tennessee (n = 10) and Fluntern (n = 10) in the environmental samples. The exact same set of Salmonella subspecies and serovars were not isolated from the individual reptiles and the environmental samples from any of the households. Isolation using MSRV yielded more Salmonella isolates 61/113 (54%) than enrichment in RVS 57/125 (46%). The se was 97.9% (95% Confidence Interval 93.9-100), the sp 78.5% (95% CI 68.5-88.5) and the κ 0.74, indicating substantial agreement between the tests.

Conclusions

Salmonella can be expected to be present in environments where reptiles are kept. This constitutes public health risks and should be considered during handling of the reptiles and during cleaning and disposal of bedding. A combination of different culturing techniques may be used to increase the isolation rate.     

Treatment of dairy cows with PGF2α or NSAID,in combination with antibiotics,in cases of postpartum uterine inflammation

Background

The aim of the study was to test the effect of two treatments in cases of acute puerperal metritis (APM) and clinical metritis (CM).

Methods

Cows with APM and CM (n = 40)) were matched according to plasma fibrinogen levels (Fb) into three groups. Two negative control groups D (n = 11) and E (n = 17) were composed of healthy cows. The proportion of animals with APM and CM was similar within the groups. Treatment was started on the 3rd day postpartum (PP). In group A (n = 15), intramuscular (i.m.) administration of ceftiofur was used for five days in combination with flunixin for three days. Group B (n = 15) received i.m. administration of ceftiofur for five days followed by two injections of prostaglandin F2_α, with an interval of 8 h, on the 8th day PP. Group C (n = 10) served as a control group with no treatment. The general health status, body temperature (BT) and vaginal discharge were evaluated daily. Endometrial biopsies for bacteriology were taken once a week for seven weeks PP. Blood samples for the analysis of acute phase proteins were collected once a week for six weeks PP. Samples for progesterone analysis were taken twice a week for seven weeks PP. Fertility performance data were recorded.

Results

The area under the curve of BT was higher in group B than in group D cows (P < 0.05). No differences were found for vaginal discharge. There were no differences in bacterial growth, start of ovarian activity or serum amyloid-A or fibrinogen levels among the groups. The haptoglobin concentration was higher in the first and second weeks PP in group B compared with the other groups (P < 0.05). The number of days open was higher in group A than in both groups B and D (P < 0.05). The pregnancy rate after the first two services was higher (P < 0.05) in groups B and D than in groups A and C. The number of services per pregnancy was lower in group B than in group C (P < 0.05).

Conclusions

Regardless of more severe uterine inflammation found in animals from group B, these cows showed the same fertility parameters as healthy animals.     

Yersinia enterocolitica in sheep - a high frequency of biotype 1A

Background

Pigs are regarded as the main reservoir for human pathogenic Yersinia enterocolitica, which is dominated by bioserotype 4/O:3. Other animals, including sheep, have occasionally been reported as carriers of pathogenic strains of Y. enterocolitica. To our knowledge, this is the first study performed in the Nordic countries in which the presence of Y. enterocolitica in sheep is investigated.

Methods

Tonsils and faecal samples collected from sheep slaughtered on the island Gotland (Sweden) from September 2010 through January 2011 were analysed for presence of Y. enterocolitica. In an attempt to maximize recovery, several cultural strategies were applied. Various non-selective media were used and different temperatures and durations of the enrichment were applied before subculturing on Cefsulodin Irgasan Novobiocin (CIN) agar. Presumptive Y. enterocolitica colonies were subjected to urease, API 20E and agglutination test. Yersinia enterocolitica isolates were biotyped, serotyped, and tested for pathogenicity using a TaqMan PCR directed towards the ail-gene that is associated with human pathogenic strains of Y. enterocolitica.

Results

The samples collected from 99 sheep yielded 567 presumptive Y. enterocolitica colonies. Eighty urease positive isolates, from 35 sheep, were identified as Y. enterocolitica by API 20E. Thirty-four of 35 further subtyped Y. enterocolitica isolates, all from faecal samples, belonged to biotype 1A serotype O:5, O:6. O:13,7 and O:10. One strain was Yersinia mollaretii serotype O:62. No human pathogenic strains of Y. enterocolitica were found in the investigated sheep. Other species identified were Y. kristensenii (n = 4), Y. frederiksenii/intermedia (n = 3), Providencia rettgeri (n = 2), Serratia marcescens (n = 1) and Raoultella ornithinolytica (n = 1).

Conclusions

This study does not support the hypothesis that sheep play an important role in transmission of the known human pathogenic Y. enterocolitica in the studied geographical region. However, because there are studies indicating that some strains of Y. enterocolitica biotype 1A may cause disease in humans, the relative importance of sheep as carriers of human pathogenic strains of Y. enterocolitica remains unclear. Tonsils do not appear to be favourable sites for Y. enterocolitica biotype 1A in sheep.     

Prospective study of dilated cardiomyopathy in dogs eating nontraditional or traditional diets and in dogs with subclinical cardiac abnormalities

BackgroundRecent studies have investigated dogs with presumed diet‐associated dilated cardiomyopathy (daDCM), but prospective studies of multiple breeds are needed.Hypothesis/ObjectivesTo evaluate baseline features and serial changes in echocardiography and cardiac biomarkers in dogs with DCM eating nontraditional diets (NTDs) or traditional diets (TDs), and in dogs with subclinical cardiac abnormalities (SCA) eating NTD.AnimalsSixty dogs with DCM (NTD, n = 51; TDs, n = 9) and 16 dogs with SCA eating NTDs.MethodsEchocardiography, electrocardiography, and measurement of taurine, cardiac troponin I, and N‐terminal pro‐B‐type natriuretic peptide were performed in dogs with DCM or SCA. Diets were changed for all dogs, taurine was supplemented in most, and echocardiography and cardiac biomarkers were reassessed (3, 6, and 9 months).ResultsAt enrollment, there were few differences between dogs with DCM eating NTDs or TDs; none had low plasma or whole blood taurine concentrations. Improvement in fractional shortening over time was significantly associated with previous consumption of a NTD, even after adjustment for other variables (P = .005). Median survival time for dogs with DCM was 611 days (range, 2‐940 days) for the NTD group and 161 days (range, 12‐669 days) for the TD group (P = .21). Sudden death was the most common cause of death in both diet groups. Dogs with SCA also had significant echocardiographic improvements over time.Conclusions and Clinical ImportanceDogs with DCM or SCA previously eating NTDs had small, yet significant improvements in echocardiographic parameters after diet changes.     

Molecular typing of Salmonella enterica serovar Enteritidis isolates from food-producing animals in Japan by multilocus variable-number tandem repeat analysis: evidence of clonal dissemination and replacement

Background

Salmonella enterica serovar Enteritidis is a zoonotic pathogen. Human infections are associated with contaminated eggs and egg products. In Japan, since 1989, the incidence of food-borne disease caused by S. Enteritidis has increased and a pandemic has occurred; however, little is known about changes that occurred before and after this pandemic event in the dominant lineage of isolates from food-producing animals. This study aimed to determine the S. Enteritidis lineages in Japan over the last few decades by using multilocus variable-number tandem repeat analysis (MLVA).

Findings

MLVA was used to analyse 79 S. Enteritidis isolates collected from chickens (n = 63), cattle (n = 12), pigs (n = 2), and goats (n = 2) during 1975–2009. The S. Enteritidis isolates showed 14 different MLVA allele combinations, which were classified into two major clusters (A and C) and a minor cluster (B). All the 62 isolates in cluster A were isolated after 1988, whereas 13 of the 17 isolates belonging to cluster B and C were isolated before 1989.

Conclusions

The MLVA results showed that cluster C was predominant before 1989, and isolates in cluster A disseminated since 1989 and replaced the previous dominant clone, suggesting that isolates of cluster A originated from imported S. Enteritidis infection.     

Comparison of lung ultrasound,chest radiographs,C‐reactive protein,and clinical findings in dogs treated for aspiration pneumonia

BackgroundComparison of clinical findings, chest radiographs (CXR), lung ultrasound (LUS) findings, and C‐reactive protein (CRP) concentrations at admission and serial follow‐up in dogs with aspiration pneumonia (AP) is lacking.HypothesisLung ultrasound lesions in dogs with AP are similar to those described in humans with community‐acquired pneumonia (comAP); the severity of CXR and LUS lesions are similar; normalization of CRP concentration precedes resolution of imaging abnormalities and more closely reflects the clinical improvement of dogs.AnimalsSeventeen dogs with AP.MethodsProspective observational study. Clinical examination, CXR, LUS, and CRP measurements performed at admission (n = 17), 2 weeks (n = 13), and 1 month after diagnosis (n = 6). All dogs received antimicrobial therapy. Lung ultrasound and CXR canine aspiration scoring systems used to compare abnormalities.ResultsB‐lines and shred signs with or without bronchograms were identified on LUS in 14 of 17 and 16 of 17, at admission. Chest radiographs and LUS scores differed significantly using both canine AP scoring systems at each time point (18 regions per dog, P < .001). Clinical and CRP normalization occurred in all dogs during follow up. Shred signs disappeared on LUS in all but 1 of 6 dogs at 1 month follow‐up, while B‐lines and CXR abnormalities persisted in 4 of 6 and all dogs, respectively.Conclusion and Clinical ImportanceLung ultrasound findings resemble those of humans with comAP and differ from CXR findings. Shred signs and high CRP concentrations better reflect clinical findings during serial evaluation of dogs.     

Poor maternal nutrition inhibits muscle development in ovine offspring

Background

Maternal over and restricted nutrition has negative consequences on the muscle of offspring by reducing muscle fiber number and altering regulators of muscle growth. To determine if over and restricted maternal nutrition affected muscle growth and gene and protein expression in offspring, 36 pregnant ewes were fed 60%, 100% or 140% of National Research Council requirements from d 31 ± 1.3 of gestation until parturition. Lambs from control-fed (CON), restricted-fed (RES) or over-fed (OVER) ewes were necropsied within 1 d of birth (n = 18) or maintained on a control diet for 3 mo (n = 15). Semitendinosus muscle was collected for immunohistochemistry, and protein and gene expression analysis.

Results

Compared with CON, muscle fiber cross-sectional area (CSA) increased in RES (58%) and OVER (47%) lambs at 1 d of age (P < 0.01); however at 3 mo, CSA decreased 15% and 17% compared with CON, respectively (P < 0.01). Compared with CON, muscle lipid content was increased in OVER (212.4%) and RES (92.5%) at d 1 (P < 0.0001). Muscle lipid content was increased 36.1% in OVER and decreased 23.6% in RES compared with CON at 3 mo (P < 0.0001). At d 1, myostatin mRNA abundance in whole muscle tended to be greater in OVER (P = 0.07) than CON. Follistatin mRNA abundance increased in OVER (P = 0.04) and tended to increase in RES (P = 0.06) compared with CON at d 1. However, there was no difference in myostatin or follistatin protein expression (P > 0.3). Phosphorylated Akt (ser473) was increased in RES at 3 mo compared with CON (P = 0.006).

Conclusions

In conclusion, maternal over and restricted nutrient intake alters muscle lipid content and growth of offspring, possibly through altered gene and protein expression.     

中性粒细胞胞外诱捕网与病原体的相互作用及其机制

中性粒细胞作为机体天然免疫系统的重要组成部分，发挥至关重要的防御病原体感染的作用。中性粒细胞发挥防御作用的机制之一是通过释放中性粒细胞胞外诱捕网（neutrophil extracellular traps，NETs）捕获并消灭病原体。然而有些病原体已进化出逃避NETs的机制，从而对机体造成持续损伤。此外，NETs的异常状态也会对机体造成一些损伤。近年来，NETs已成为中性粒细胞功能研究的热点，受到了国内外学者的广泛关注。有学者在禽的异嗜性粒细胞中也发现了类似NETs功能的网状结构，并将其命名为异嗜性粒细胞胞外诱捕网（heterophil extracellular traps，HETs）。作者主要对NETs抵御病原体入侵和病原体逃避NETs的机制并引起宿主致病等过程进行综述。     

Transvenous electrical cardioversion of atrial fibrillation in horses: Horse and procedural factors correlated with success and recurrence

BackgroundTransvenous electrical cardioversion (TVEC) is 1 of the main treatment options for atrial fibrillation (AF) in horses. Large‐scale studies on factors affecting success and prognosis have primarily been performed in Standardbred populations.Hypothesis/ObjectivesTo determine factors affecting cardioversion success, cardioversion difficulty and recurrence in a predominant Warmblood study sample.AnimalsTVEC records of 199 horses.MethodsRetrospective study of TVEC procedures of horses admitted for AF without severe echocardiographic abnormalities. Horse and procedural factors for success and cumulative amount of energy (≤ 600 J vs > 600 J) were determined using multivariable logistic regression. A survival analysis was performed to determine risk factors for recurrence.ResultsTwo hundred and thirty‐one TVEC procedures were included, with a 94.4% success rate and 31.9% recurrence rate (51/160). Mitral regurgitation (OR 0.151, 95% CI 0.032‐0.715, P = .02) and AF cycle length (OR 1.05, 95% CI 1.01‐1.09, P = .02) were independent determinants for success. Catheter type (OR 0.154, 95% CI 0.074‐0.322, P < .001), previous AF episode (OR 3.10, 95% CI 1.20‐8.01, P = .02), tricuspid regurgitation (OR 2.54, 95% CI 1.25‐5.13, P = .01), and body weight (OR 1.009, 95% CI 1.003‐1.015, P = .004) were significantly correlated with cumulative amount of energy delivered. Significant risk factors for recurrence after a first AF episode were sex (stallion; HR 3.05, 95% CI 1.34‐6.95, P = .008), mitral regurgitation (HR 1.91, 95% CI 1.08‐3.38, P = .03), and AF duration (HR 1.001, 95% CI 1.0001‐1.0026, P = .04).Conclusions and Clinical ImportanceBoth horse and procedural factors should be considered when assessing treatment options and prognosis in horses with AF.     

Effects of inorganic or organic selenium on immunoglobulins in swine

A study was conducted to determine if Se source fed during gestation and lactation affects passive transfer of immunoglobulins. Sixty days prior to breeding (d -60), gilts were randomly assigned to one of three treatments prior to breeding and throughout gestation: control (Control, no supplemental Se; n = 8), inorganic Se (Inorganic Se, 0.3 ppm; n = 4) and organic Se (Organic Se, 0.3 ppm; n = 4). Blood was collected on d -60, 57 and 113 of gestation and on d 21 of lactation and milk was collected at d 0, 1, 7, 14, and 21 of lactation. Blood was collected from piglets at d 0, 1, 7, 14, and 21 of age. Gilts fed organic Se had greater (P < 0.05) circulating concentrations of Se than Inorganic and Control gilts. Regardless of treatment, circulating concentrations of Se were greatest (P < 0.05) at d -60 compared to all other days. Serum concentrations of IgG were greatest (P < 0.05) in gilts at d 57 of gestation compared to d 113. Serum concentrations of IgA were greatest (P < 0.05) on d 113 of gestation and d 21 of lactation compared to d -60 and 57. Serum concentrations of IgM were greater (P < 0.05) at d 57 compared to d -60. Inorganic gilts had greater (P < 0.05) colostral and milk concentrations of IgG and IgM than Organic or Control gilts. Circulating concentrations of Se in piglets were greatest (P < 0.05) at d 14 and 21 of age compared to all other days. Piglets from gilts supplemented with organic Se had greater (P < 0.05) circulating concentrations of Se on d 1 versus piglets from gilts supplemented with no additional Se. The immunoglobulin concentrations of IgG, IgA, and IgM were lowest (P < 0.05) on d 0 and then increased when compared to d 1. The addition of different sources of Se did not affect the immunoglobulin concentrations in the gilt or piglet.     

Forage and breed effects on behavior and temperament of pregnant beef heifers

Background

Integration of behavioral observations with traditional selection schemes may lead to enhanced animal well-being and more profitable forage-based cattle production systems. Brahman-influenced (BR; n = 64) and Gelbvieh × Angus (GA; n = 64) heifers consumed either toxic endophyte-infected tall fescue (E+) or one of two nontoxic endophyte-infected tall fescue (NT) cultivars during two yr. Heifers were weighed at midpoint and termination of grazing. Grazing behavior (grazing, resting in the shade, lying, or standing without grazing) was recorded (n = 13 visual observations per yr in June and July) for each pasture. During yr 2, exit velocity (EV) and serum prolactin (PRL) were determined.

Results

Grazing behavior was influenced (P < 0.05) by an interaction between fescue cultivar and breed type. Gelbvieh × Angus heifers assigned to E+ pastures had the lowest percentage of animals grazing and the largest percentage of animals resting in the shade. Brahman-influenced heifers had faster EV (P < 0.001) than GA heifers (0.52 vs. 0.74 ± 0.04 s/m, respectively). Body weight (BW) was affected (P < 0.01) by an interaction of tall fescue cultivar and d, and an interaction of tall fescue cultivar and breed type. Heifers grazing NT pastures were heavier (P < 0.01) than heifers grazing E+ pastures at midpoint and termination. Gelbvieh × Angus heifers grazing NT pastures were heavier (P < 0.01) than GA and BR heifers grazing E+ and BR heifers grazing NT pastures. An interaction of forage cultivar and breed type occurred on serum PRL (P < 0.01).

Conclusion

Collectively fescue cultivar, EV, and concentrations of serum PRL were associated with grazing behavior. Heifers grazing NT pastures were observed to be grazing more than heifers assigned to E+ pastures, regardless of breed type, which may have contributed to changes in BW and average daily gain (ADG) in heifers. Integration of behavioral observations along with traditional selection schemes may lead to enhanced animal well-being and more profitable forage-based cattle production systems.     

Risk factors and implications associated with renal mineralization in chronic kidney disease in cats

BackgroundNephrocalcinosis is a pathological feature of chronic kidney disease (CKD). Its pathophysiological implications for cats with CKD are unexplored.ObjectivesIdentify nephrocalcinosis risk factors and evaluate its influence on CKD progression and all‐cause mortality.AnimalsFifty‐one euthyroid client‐owned cats with International Renal Interest Society (IRIS) stages 2‐3 azotemic CKD.MethodsRetrospective cohort study. Histopathological kidney sections were assessed for nephrocalcinosis (von Kossa stain). Nephrocalcinosis severity was determined by image analysis (ImageJ). Ordinal logistic regressions were performed to identify nephrocalcinosis risk factors. The influence of nephrocalcinosis on CKD progression and mortality risk were assessed using linear mixed model and Cox regression, respectively. Cats were categorized by their owner‐reported time‐averaged phosphate‐restricted diet (PRD) intake, where PRD comprised ≥50%, 10‐50%, or none of food intake.ResultsNephrocalcinosis was rated as mild‐to‐severe in 78.4% and absent‐to‐minimal in 21.6% of cases. Higher baseline plasma total calcium concentration (tCa; odds ratio [OR] = 3.07 per 1 mg/dL; P = .02) and eating a PRD (10%‐50%: OR = 8.35; P = .01; ≥50%: OR = 5.47; P = .01) were independent nephrocalcinosis risk factors. Cats with absent‐to‐minimal nephrocalcinosis had increasing plasma creatinine (0.250 ± 0.074 mg/dL/month; P = .002), urea (5.06 ± 1.82 mg/dL/month; P = .01), and phosphate (0.233 ± 0.115 mg/dL/month; P = .05) concentrations over a 1‐year period, and had shorter median survival times than cats with mild‐to‐severe nephrocalcinosis.Conclusion and Clinical ImportanceHigher plasma tCa at CKD diagnosis and PRD intake are independently associated with nephrocalcinosis. However, nephrocalcinosis is not associated with rapid CKD progression in cats.