A study of the lifetime occurrence of neoplasia and breed differences in a cohort of German Shepherd Dogs and Belgian Malinois military working dogs that died in 1992

The population of U.S. Department of Defense military working dogs provides an opportunity to study the lifetime occurrence of neoplasia in 2 breeds of dogs—the German Shepherd Dog and the Belgian Malinois. Medical records were reviewed for all dogs that died or were euthanized in 1992 (135 German Shepherd Dogs and 106 Belgian Malinois). Histologically confirmed neoplasms were recorded. More than 30% of both breeds (41 German Shepherd Dogs and 33 Belgian Malinois) developed at least 1 primary neoplasm during their lives, with 10% developing more than 1 neoplasm. Nearly 57% of the neoplasms were benign, and approximately 43% were malignant. German Shepherd Dogs lived 9.7 years, on average, and Belgian Malinois lived 7.9 years, on average. Of the dogs that developed any neoplasm, Belgian Malinois had a mean age at 1st diagnosis that was 1.1 years younger and a mean age at 1st diagnosis of malignancy that was 1.7 years younger than those in German Shepherd Dogs. The risk of a malignancy being the cause of death or euthanasia of a Belgian Malinois was 4.21 times the risk in German Shepherd Dogs (95% CI: 1.32, 13.47). Seminoma was the malignancy that occurred most frequently. Hemangioma was the benign neoplasm that occurred most frequently. Veterinarians identified masses clinically at equal rates in both groups.     

Causes of death or reasons for euthanasia in military working dogs: 927 cases (1993-1996)

OBJECTIVE: To determine causes of death or reasons for euthanasia in a population of military working dogs. DESIGN: Retrospective study. ANIMALS: 927 military working dogs. PROCEDURE: Records of all military working dogs that died during the period from 1993 to 1996 were evaluated for cause of death or reason for euthanasia by review of necropsy and histopathology reports, death certificates, and daily clinical treatment sheets. A single primary cause of death or euthanasia was determined. RESULTS: Although sexually intact male dogs were more numerous in the study population, castrated male dogs typically lived longer than spayed females or sexually intact males. Leading causes of death or euthanasia (76.3% of all dogs) were appendicular degenerative joint disease, neoplasia, spinal cord disease, nonspecific geriatric decline, and gastric dilatation-volvulus. Compared with German Shepherd Dogs, Belgian Shepherd Dogs were at increased risk for death attributable to neoplasia, behavior, and respiratory tract disease. German Shepherd Dogs had nearly twice the risk for death associated with spinal cord diseases, compared with Belgian Shepherd Dogs. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: For most military working dogs, death or euthanasia results from a few diseases commonly associated with advanced age. Some breed differences in risk for these diseases may exist, which clinicians should consider in the procurement and long-term management of these dogs.     

Influence of borderline hip dysplasia on joint kinematics of clinically sound Belgian Shepherd dogs

OBJECTIVE: To detect changes in joint kinematics of clinically sound dogs with or without radiographically detectable borderline hip dysplasia (HD). ANIMALS: 20 Belgian Shepherd Dogs (Malinois; mean +/- SD age, 2.75 +/- 1.32 years) with no clinical signs of HD. PROCEDURES: Kinematic gait analysis was performed in Malinois walking on a treadmill. On the basis of results of radiographic examination for HD and in accordance with guidelines established by the Fédération Cynologique Internationale, dogs were assigned to group 1 (no radiographic signs of HD; 8 dogs) or group 2 (borderline HD; 12 dogs). Ground reaction forces and weight distribution among limbs and differences between groups were evaluated. Maximal sagittal angle during the stance and swing phases, the time at which they were detected, and angle velocities were calculated for joints of the hind limbs. RESULTS: Ground reaction forces revealed no differences between groups. Dogs in group 1 had significant changes (earlier time for maximal flexion of the hip joint and less flexion and less range of motion of the stifle joint), compared with results for dogs in group 2. Maximal angle velocity of the stifle and tarsal joints was significantly lower during the swing phase in group 1 than in group 2. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: This study revealed that dogs with borderline HD had altered joint kinematics. Our data provide basic kinematic values for clinically sound and affected dogs and can be used to investigate the long-term effects for subclinical radiographic changes of the hip joints of dogs.     

Facet joint geometry and intervertebral disk degeneration in the L5-S1 region of the vertebral column in German Shepherd dogs

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the possible association between facet joint geometry and intervertebral disk degeneration in German Shepherd Dogs. ANIMALS: 25 German Shepherd Dogs and 11 control dogs of similar body weight and condition. PROCEDURE: Facet joint angles in the caudal portion of the lumbar region of the vertebral column (L5-S1) were measured by use of computed tomography, and the intervertebral discs were evaluated microscopically. The relationship between facet joint geometry and disk degeneration was evaluated by use of statistical methods. RESULTS: German Shepherd Dogs had significantly more facet joint tropism than control dogs, but an association with disk degeneration was not found. However, German Shepherd Dogs had a different facet joint conformation, with more sagittally oriented facet joints at L5-L6 and L6-L7 and a larger angle difference between the lumbar and lumbosacral facet joints, compared with control dogs. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: A large difference between facet joint angles at L6-L7 and L7-S1 in German Shepherd Dogs may be associated with the frequent occurrence of lumbosacral disk degeneration in this breed.     

Comparison of measurements obtained by use of an electrogoniometer and a universal plastic goniometer for the assessment of joint motion in dogs

OBJECTIVE: To compare measurements obtained by use of a universal plastic goniometer (UG) and an electrogoniometer (EG) and from radiographs and to compare joint motion in German Shepherd Dogs and Labrador Retrievers. ANIMALS: 12 healthy adult German Shepherd Dogs and data previously collected from 16 healthy adult Labrador Retrievers. PROCEDURES: German Shepherd Dogs were sedated. One investigator then measured motion of the carpal, cubital (elbow), shoulder, tarsal, stifle, and hip joints of the sedated dogs. Measurements were made in triplicate with a UG and an EG. Radiographs were taken of all joints in maximal flexion and extension. Values were compared between the UG and EG and with values previously determined for joints of 16 Labrador Retrievers. RESULTS: An EG had higher variability than a UG for all dogs. The EG variability appeared to result from the technique for the EG. German Shepherd Dogs had lower values in flexion and extension than did Labrador Retrievers for all joints, except the carpal joints. German Shepherd Dogs had less motion in the tarsal joints, compared with motion for the Labrador Retrievers, but had similar motion in all other joints. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: A UG is reliable for obtaining measurements in German Shepherd Dogs. There was higher variability for the EG than for the UG, and an EG cannot be recommended for use.     

德国牧羊犬,中国地方狼犬及其杂种耐热性能观察

试验观察测定了德国牧羊犬(原种犬和纯繁犬各6头)、中国地方狼犬(2头)、德×中杂一代(5头)和级进二代(4头),在炎热季节里的体温、呼吸频率、采食量、饮水量、血液生理指标和行为等方面的变化。结果发现,纯繁德国牧羊犬的体温显著高于中国地方狼犬和杂一代(P<0.05);高温对纯繁德国牧羊犬采食量的影响显著高于中国地方狼犬和杂一代(P<0.05);其他方面,纯繁德国牧羊犬的应激反应也较中国地方狼犬明显。初步表明,中国地方狼犬和杂一代的耐热性较强,纯繁德国牧羊犬的耐热性较弱,级进二代的耐热性较杂一代有所下降。     

SUBCLINICAL CT ABNORMALITIES IN THE LUMBOSACRAL SPINE OF OLDER LARGE-BREED DOGS

Computed tomography (CT) of the L5-S3 vertebral levels was performed in six, large-breed dogs presented for problems unrelated to the lumbosacral spine. All dogs were asymptomatic for lumbosacral stenosis on neurologic examination. Breeds included German Shepherd, Golden Retriever, Boxermix and Belgian Malinois. Ages ranged from 5-12 years. Five out of six dogs exhibited CT abnormalities. Among the 18 disc levels examined, the most common findings were idiopathic stenosis, loss of vertebral canal epidural fat, and nerve tissue displacement. Less common abnormalities were vertebral canal or foraminal bone proliferation, loss of intervertebral foramen fat, vertebral canal disc bulging, degenerative articular process joint disease, transitional vertebra, dural ossification, foraminal disc bulging, Schmorl's nodes, calcified extruded disc fragment, and sacroiliac joint osteophytes. Vertebral subluxation was absent in all dogs. Findings indicate that some lumbosacral CT abnormalities may be clinically insignificant, especially in older dogs.     

Tibial plateau angle in four common canine breeds with cranial cruciate ligament rupture, and its relationship to meniscal tears

OBJECTIVES: To compare tibial plateau angle (TPA) among Labrador Retrievers, Rottweilers, Boxers, and German Shepherd Dogs that had undergone tibial plateau leveling osteotomies (TPLO) for cranial cruciate ligament disease, and to determine if higher TPAs are associated with increased risk for concurrent meniscal injury. METHODS: This was a retrospective study including 275 client-owned dogs of one of the four aforementioned breeds that received TPLO radiographs between 1999 and 2005 prior to undergoing the TPLO procedure. The TPA measured by the original surgeon was compared among four breeds and analyzed with respect to presence or absence of meniscal injury diagnosed via arthroscopy or arthrotomy at the time of surgery. RESULTS: Labrador Retrievers, Rottweilers, Boxers, and German Shepherd Dogs had mean TPAs of 25.9 degrees , 26.2 degrees , 25.9 degrees , and 28.2 degrees , respectively. The TPA of German Shepherd Dogs was significantly higher than that of the other breeds of dogs examined. TPA higher than the mean for dogs in this study did not significantly increase the risk for concurrent meniscal injury. CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE: German Shepherd Dogs with cranial cruciate ligament disease had a significantly higher TPA compared to the other breeds examined. Higher TPA did not increase the likelihood of meniscal tears in this study. However, several variables that were not assessed, including the degree of cranial cruciate ligament integrity at the time of surgery and the time between original CrCL deficiency and surgical assessment, could have affected this analysis.     

Effect of Auditory Stimulation During Early Development in Puppy Testing of Future Police Working Dogs

The aim of this study was to determine if the use of auditory stimulation during early development stages of young puppies, using a variety of sounds such as music, radio talk shows, and ambient noise, that included car noises, sirens, and gunshots, could affect the results of early puppy testing of future police working dogs. Sixty-seven puppies at 7 weeks of age were submitted to a 9-situation test and their results analyzed. The sample comprised 34 males and 33 females, from 4 different breeds/crosses (27 German Shepherd Dog, 19 Belgian Malinois Shepherd Dog, 7 Dutch Shepherd Dog, and 14 animals of a cross of German Shepherd Dog with Belgian Malinois Shepherd Dog), representing 12 litters. Puppies were divided in 2 groups, G1 (n?=?46) and G2 (n?=?21), with G1 being submitted only to the standard socialization protocol in use in the Grupo de Intervenção Cinotécnico while puppies in G2, beside the standard socialization protocol, were also presented with auditory stimulation throughout the day, particularly during playtime and meal time. Significant differences were observed in some situations between groups, with puppies in G1 achieving better scores on this specific test, which aims to access a puppy's level of interaction with humans, reaction to manipulations, and reaction to different environmental stimulus. No differences were found between sexes but some differences between breeds were found, suggesting familial effects on noise reaction. Further studies, involving a greater number of puppies and litters, and that would also include noise exposure quantification, behavioral, and physiological assays are required to confirm these findings. It will also be of interest to evaluate if the results obtained as a young puppy have any connection with future adult performance.     

Refractive states of eyes and association between ametropia and breed in dogs

OBJECTIVE: To assess the refractive state of eyes in various breeds of dogs to identify breeds susceptible to ametropias. ANIMALS: 1,440 dogs representing 90 breeds. PROCEDURES: In each dog, 1 drop of 1% cyclopentolate or 1% tropicamide was applied to each eye, and a Canine Eye Registration Foundation examination was performed. Approximately 30 minutes after drops were administered, the refractive state of each eye was assessed via streak retinoscopy. Dogs were considered ametropic (myopic or hyperopic) when the mean refractive state (the resting focus of the eye at rest relative to visual infinity) exceeded +/- 0.5 diopter (D). Anisometropia was diagnosed when the refractive error of each eye in a pair differed by > 1 D. RESULTS: Mean +/- SD refractive state of all eyes examined was -0.05 +/- 1.36 D (emmetropia). Breeds in which the mean refractive state was myopic (< or = -0.5 D) included Rottweiler, Collie, Miniature Schnauzer, and Toy Poodle. Degree of myopia increased with increasing age across all breeds. Breeds in which the mean refractive state was hyperopic (> or = +0.5 D) included Australian Shepherd, Alaskan Malamute, and Bouvier des Flandres. Astigmatism was detected in 1% (14/1,440) of adult (> or = 1 year of age) dogs; prevalence of astigmatism among German Shepherd Dogs was 3.3% (3/90). Anisometropia was detected in 6% (87/1,440) of all dogs and in 8.9% (8/90) of German Shepherd Dogs. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Refractive states of canine eyes varied widely and were influenced by breed and age. In dogs expected to have high visual function (eg, performance dogs), determination of refractive state is recommended prior to intensive training.     

Quantification of measurement of femoral head coverage and Norberg angle within and among four breeds of dogs

OBJECTIVE: To report values for percentage coverage of the femoral head (PC) and Norberg angle (NA) in 4 common breeds of dogs and to determine values for each that distinguish between normal and dysplastic hip status on the basis of Orthopedic Foundation for Animals (OFA) hip evaluation. ANIMALS: 1,841 dogs 24 to 48 months of age that were Labrador Retrievers (455), Golden Retrievers (423), Rottweilers (545), or German Shepherd Dogs (418). PROCEDURE: Retrospective analysis of NA and PC measured from standard OFA ventrodorsal pelvic radiographs from 4 breeds of dog. RESULTS: Norberg angle ranged from 67.4 to 124.4 degrees for Labrador Retrievers, 59.7 to 128.6 degrees for Rottweilers, 70.2 to 119.4 degrees for Golden Retrievers, and 55.3 to 121.3 degrees for German Shepherd Dogs. The PC ranged from 6.5 to 79.9% for Labrador Retrievers, 5.7 to 79.5% for Rottweilers, 8.3 to 79.3% for Golden Retrievers, and 5.4 to 83.7% for German Shepherd Dogs. On the basis of logistic regression modeling for determining normal versus abnormal hip status for all 4 breeds, cutoff points for NA were <105 degrees and PC were <50%. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Results of our study indicate that cutoff points of NA of 105 degrees and PC of 50% do not differentiate normal versus dysplastic hip status. Each of the 4 breeds had different values for NA and PC that distinguished normal from dysplastic hip status.     

Use of chromametry and digital photography for objective measurement of skin color in clinically normal dogs

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate whether skin erythema in clinically normal dogs can be quantified by use of chromametry and image analysis of digital photographs. ANIMALS: 9 German Shepherd Dogs and 10 mixed-breed dogs. PROCEDURE: Hair was clipped at 7 sites on the body. Skin erythema was evaluated at the axillary region, right and left lateral aspect of thorax, right and left loin area (ie, part of the back between the thorax and pelvis), right and left groin area (ie, the junctional region between the abdomen and thigh), metatarsal digital pad, and on the nose. Replicate measurements were done by use of chromametry and image analysis of digital photographs, using erythema values in accordance with the Committee International d'Eclairage (CIE)-Lab color system. RESULTS: Repeatability was high for both techniques. Within-dog variation was lower than between-dog variation. Between-dog variation was high for both groups of dogs. Interregional variation was significant in German Shepherd Dogs and mixed-breed dogs. Erythema values revealed symmetry between the right and left lateral aspects of the thorax and loin and groin areas. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Precise objective methods are available for skin erythema quantification. Chromametric and photographic erythema values had a high within-dog reproducibility. Between-dog variability was high for German Shepherd Dogs and mixed-breed dogs as was regional variation, indicating differences in color among dogs.     

Effects of ovariohysterectomy on reactivity in German Shepherd dogs

This study investigated the effects of ovariohysterectomy on reactivity of German Shepherd dogs. Fourteen healthy dogs ranging in age from 5 to 10 months were assigned to an ovariohysterectomy or a sexually intact group. Their behaviours were digitally video recorded 4-5 months after treatment and analysed for treatment effects on reactivity. Responses to the approach of an unfamiliar human leading an unknown dog were assigned the following reactivity scores: severe reactivity, 3; moderate reactivity, 2; defensive or mild reactivity, 1; attentive or no reactivity, 0. Median reactivity scores in response to the approach of an unfamiliar human walking with an unknown dog were calculated for each observation period. Dogs in the ovariohysterectomized group showed more reactivity, and median reactivity scores were higher in the ovariohysterectomy group compared with those of the sexually intact group. Ovariohysterectomy of 5-10 month old German Shepherd bitches specifically, and perhaps bitches of any breed generally, may induce an increase in reactivity. Practitioners may benefit from recognizing that a range of behavioural changes may occur post-ovariohysterectomy.     

A LUMBOSACRAL TRANSITIONAL VERTEBRA IN THE DOG PREDISPOSES TO CAUDA EQUINA SYNDROME

The association between the occurrence of a lumbosacral transitional vertebra (LTV) and the cauda equina syndrome (CES) in dogs was investigated. In 4000 control dogs without signs of CES, 3.5% had an LTV, while in 92 dogs with CES, 16.3% had an LTV. The lesion causing CES always occurred between the last true lumbar vertebra and the LTV. Dogs with an LTV were eight times more likely to develop CES than dogs without an LTV. German Shepherd dogs were eight times more likely to develop CES compared with other breeds. Male dogs were twice as likely to develop CES than females. Dogs with an LTV develop CES 1-2 years earlier than dogs without an LTV.     

Ocular signs of canine monocytic ehrlichiosis: a retrospective study in dogs from Barcelona, Spain

Canine monocytic ehrlichiosis (CME) is a tick-borne disease caused by the rickettsia Ehrlichia canis. Ocular lesions are a common feature of the disease and can be present in all stages. The purpose of this retrospective study was to determine the prevalence, type and response to treatment of ocular lesions associated with monocytic ehrlichiosis in 46 affected dogs presented to the Autonomous University of Barcelona-Veterinary Teaching Hospital (UAB-VTH) from January 2000 to December 2002. Dogs were included in the study only if they had a positive serologic test for E. canis and information about the clinical outcome was available. Eighteen breeds were represented, with the German Shepherd dog (n = 6) being the most common. There were 25 intact and three castrated males, and 16 intact and two neutered females. Twenty dogs (43.4%) were between 5 and 10 years old. Seventeen dogs (37% of all cases of monocytic ehrlichiosis diagnosed during the study period) had ocular signs, and 11 dogs (64.7% of the ocular cases) had only ocular lesions without apparent systemic signs. Exudative retinal detachment was the most common ocular manifestation; other prevalent findings included anterior exudative uveitis and optic neuritis. Five of the 17 cases with ocular lesions (29.4%) had ocular bleeding disorders (hyphema or retinal hemorrhages). All the dogs with ocular disease presented with bilateral signs. Dogs with posterior segment disease had titers against E. canis that were > or = 1 : 320, while lower titers were noted in dogs with anterior exudative uveitis. Two dogs presented with chronic autoimmune panuveitis after ehrlichiosis treatment. Canine ehrlichiosis should be considered in the differential diagnosis of exudative retinal detachment and anterior uveal inflammatory lesions.     

Comparison of the large muscle group widths of the pelvic limb in seven breeds of dogs

Orthopaedic diseases are common in the pelvic limbs of dogs, and reference values for large muscle groups of the pelvic limb may aid in diagnosis such diseases. As such, the objective of this study was to compare the large muscle groups of the pelvic limb in seven breeds of dogs. A total of 126 dogs from different breeds were included, and the widths of the quadriceps, hamstring and gastrocnemius muscles were measured from images of the lateral radiographies. The width of the quadriceps was not different between the breeds, but the widths of the hamstring and gastrocnemius muscles were significantly different between the breeds. The widest hamstring and gastrocnemius muscles were seen in the Rottweilers and the Boxers, respectively. The narrowest hamstring and gastrocnemius muscles were seen in the Belgian Malinois and the Golden retrievers, respectively. All ratios between the measured muscles differed significantly between the breeds. Doberman pinschers and Belgian Malinois had the highest ratio of gastrocnemius width:hamstring width. Doberman pinschers had also the highest ratio of quadriceps width:hamstring width. German shepherds had the highest ratio of gastrocnemius width:quadriceps width. The lowest ratios of quadriceps width:hamstring width were determined in the German shepherds. The ratios of the muscle widths may be used as reference values to assess muscular atrophy or hypertrophy in cases of bilateral or unilateral orthopaedic diseases of the pelvic limbs. Further studies are required to determine the widths and ratios of the large muscle groups of the pelvic limbs in other dog breeds.     

Cystine-containing urinary calculi in dogs: 102 cases (1981-1989).

One hundred and seven cystine-containing urinary calculi from 1 female and 101 male dogs were analyzed. Cystine-containing calculi accounted for 2% (107 of 5,375) of all canine urinary calculi submitted to the urinary stone analysis laboratory from July 1981 through December 1989. Male dogs that formed cystine calculi were compared with 3 other canine populations to determine whether certain breeds were apparently at increased or decreased risk for cystine calculus formation. In one or more of 3 population comparisons, significantly increased risk of cystine calculus formation was found in Mastiffs, Australian Cattle Dogs, English Bulldogs, Chihuahuas, Bullmastiffs, Newfoundlands, Dachshunds, Basenjis, Australian Shepherd Dogs, Scottish Deerhounds, Staffordshire Terriers, Miniature Pinschers, pitbull terriers, Welsh Corgis, Silky Terriers, and Bichon Frises. Significantly low risk of cystine calculus formation was found in German Shepherd Dogs, Poodles, Schnauzers, and mixed-breed dogs.     

利用PCR-RFLP检测五品种警犬遗传缺陷——血管性假性血友病

犬血管性假性血友病(vWD)是常染色体不完全显性遗传性出血病.血管性假血友病因子(vWF)的数量和质量正常与否决定着是否患有vWD,而vWF基因的表达又控制着vWF的数量和质量.本研究应用DNA测序技术和PCR-RFLP方法检测德国牧羊犬、杜伯文犬、罗威纳犬、史宾格犬和马里努阿犬等5个品种共132头犬的vWF基因5个候选区域.结果显示,德国牧羊犬、罗威纳犬、史宾格犬和马里努阿犬未发现vWF突变基因,杜伯文犬中有2头患病和3头携带者,携带频率为5.16%.     

COMPARISON BETWEEN CRANIAL THORACIC INTERVERTEBRAL DISC HERNIATIONS IN GERMAN SHEPHERD DOGS AND OTHER LARGE BREED DOGS

Cranial thoracic intervertebral disc herniations have been reported to be rare in dogs due to the presence of the intercapital ligament, however some studies have proposed they may not be uncommon in German Shepherd dogs. The purpose of this retrospective study was to compare cranial thoracic intervertebral disc herniations in German Shepherd dogs and other large breed dogs (control group). Medical records at the Ontario Veterinary College were searched for German Shepherd dogs and other large breed dogs that had magnetic resonance imaging studies including the T1‐T9 region. For each dog and each disc space from T1‐T9, three variables (compression, disc degeneration, and herniation) were recorded and graded based on review of sagittal T2‐weighted images. Twenty‐three German Shepherd dogs and 47 other large breed dogs met inclusion criteria. The German Shepherd dog group had higher scores than the control group for compression (P = 0.0099) and herniation (P < 0.001), but not disc degeneration (P = 0.97). In the German Shepherd dog group, intervertebral discs T2‐T3 and T4‐T5 had an increased risk for compression and T3‐T4 had an increased risk for compression and herniation. Findings from this study indicated that German Shepherd dogs may be more likely than other large breed dogs to have spinal cord compression due to cranial thoracic disc herniations. Imaging of the cranial thoracic spine, including T2‐T3, is recommended for German Shepherd dogs with T3‐L3 neurological signs.