The reorganization of water users' associations in Mendoza,Argentina

This paper describes the changes introduced in water users' associations in the Province of Mendoza, Argentina. Before 1985 there were 709 water users' associations, known as Canal Inspection, each of them in charge of the administration of an area of about 300 ha, corresponding to tertiary and quaternary canals. At present there are 21 reorganized inspections administering an average area of 6 000 ha. The democratic system for the election of authorities is described and the method of budget preparation and control is discussed. The advantage of reorganization is illustrated through the economic assessment of the Reduccion Main Canal. This canal irrigates an area of 13 985 ha. The annual benefits due to reorganization are estimated to total A 32 800 (US$ 41 000), being 2.1 times the annual budget of the Inspection.     

Assessing the financial performance of water user associations: a case study at Great Menderes basin,Turkey

Management, operation and maintenance services of about 1.7 million ha irrigation areas, constructed the scheme by State Hydraulic Works (DSI) were turned over to Water User Association (WUA) in Turkey. The number of the WUAs is 330 in Turkey for 2005. There is therefore an urgent need to study methods of measurement and evaluation of financial performance of WUA in order to improve the financial performance and raise the management level of WUA. This paper proposes 12 financial indicators in order to measure and evaluate the financial performance of WUAs. Based on the results in four irrigation schemes and WUAs in Great Menderes basin, Turkey, the methods of measurement and calculation of financial performance indicators selected, and difference factor value related to each indicator are presented. Several financial performance indicators and difference factor values varied widely 1999 to 2004. Therefore, these financial performance indicators should be carefully evaluated and monitored for financial sustainability of WUAs.     

Assessing the performance of participatory irrigation management over time: A case study from Turkey

In many countries today, irrigation systems have been transferred to the water user associations (WUAs). Accordingly, it is believed that the performance of the irrigation systems is dependent on the performance of the WUAs.In this study, the performance of participatory irrigation management (PIM) over time is assessed with regard to the Kestel WUA serving a wide area of Turkey's Aegean coast. Data relating to the WUA is obtained from both the State Hydraulic Works and WUAs’ own records. In addition, two surveys have been carried out with the members of the WUA with an 8-year interval between them. Data have been analyzed within the framework of selected irrigation performance criteria and indicators. The non-parametric Mann-Whitney U test was used to compare the perceptions of the farmers on the WUA at different survey periods. A Logit model was estimated to evaluate the relationship between the irrigation problems and the level of satisfaction from the WUA.The performance of the WUA with the indicators of utility, productivity, sustainability and financial efficiency was found to be positive; while the performance of adequacy was identified as poor. The farmers were generally satisfied of the WUA's operation, with their level of satisfaction improving over time. On the other hand, the farmers were not fully convinced that they had input with the system management. The initial design of the channel system and its maintenance were identified to be the key factors affecting user satisfaction.Overall, the Kestel WUA may be considered a successful example, thus supporting a promising future for PIM. Yet improved control and farmer education is needed for a superior performance of all indicators; and further enhanced farmer participation in management should be achieved in order to raise the level of farmer satisfaction.     

Maintenance Under Institutional Reform in Andhra Pradesh

India has a huge stock of canal irrigationsystems that suffer from poor maintenanceand reduced performance. The root of themaintenance problems are structural andrelate to perverse incentive structures andpoor management. In 1997, the state ofAndhra Pradesh initiated a bold experimentaimed at restructuring irrigation operationand maintenance (O&M) across the state. Under the strong leadership of the state'scharismatic chief minister, a newirrigation law was passed and 10,000 wateruser associations (WUAs) created. WUAsreceived control over a portion of themaintenance budget and power to prioritizeand supervise small-scale maintenance worksin their areas. These steps changedradically the service relationships andgovernance mechanisms which controlmaintenance service provision. Accordingto one evaluation, the changes resulted ina significant expansion in irrigated area,reduced flooding losses and an earliercropping calendar as a result of improveddrainage, and higher paddy yields. However, the reforms did not establishclear accountability linkages between WUAsand O&M engineers in the public irrigationagency and failed to specify measures topermanently reduce the size of the state'sirrigation bureaucracy.     

Didactic tools for supporting participatory water management in collective irrigation schemes

In many irrigation schemes, Water Users Associations (WUAs) acquired the responsibility for water management after withdrawal of the state. Based on the success of some indigenous irrigation schemes, it was assumed that farmers could easily become managers. As decision-making was the exclusive terrain of the governmental agencies that ran the schemes, farmers never gained the necessary experience with water management. Therefore, training of farmers and WUAs on the principles and processes of water management is essential. This paper demonstrates a practical example of training material on water management that incorporates research results on the process of Irrigation Management Transfer and resulting farmers’ water management for the case of the Office du Niger irrigation scheme. The results of the paper explain how input from research was used in the four steps of the construction of training material. These steps are (1) setting the training agenda, (2) selecting and adapting information to be featured, (3) targeting the audience and (4) designing the actual training material. A first validation of the approach and examples of the actual training material were obtained in a workshop uniting all stakeholders.     

Evaluating planning and delivery performance of Water User Associations (WUAs) in Osh Province, Kyrgyzstan

The primary objective of an irrigation organization is to provide efficient and effective management of water resources to achieve enhanced agricultural production. Performance assessment studies provide a tool to evaluate and promote this objective. The study examines the existing planning procedures and assesses irrigation performance of four Water User Associations (WUAs) located in Osh Province, Kyrgyzstan. Performance was evaluated using indicators of adequacy, efficiency, dependability and equity. Indicators were calculated for each irrigation season over the period 2003 to 2007. In general, all WUAs were found to be strong in terms of adequacy and efficiency standards. However, performance with respect to dependability and equity was poor. The results suggest that more effort is needed to improve temporal uniformity and equity in water distribution. In order to achieve this, estimations of irrigation requirements by WUA managers needs to be improved and mechanisms developed to request water in quantities, which are needed to maintain equity across the WUA outlets and among water users. The study concludes that the establishment of WUAs in Kyrgyzstan has helped to address the problem of water distribution and allocation among a large number of farmers. However, further training of farmers and managers is required to build their capacity to share water and ensure equity among users particularly during periods of less than optimal water supply. The findings of this research suggest that application of a pre-determined set of indicators can be a useful and cost effective tool to measure the performance of WUAs. This is particularly important for Central Asia where the performance of the recently established and state initiated WUAs to replace former collective farms is now a key element in future sustainable water management. The study identified uncertainties in the estimation of WUA water demands based on previous methods and suggests more attention and care required in calculating water requirements.     

Assessing irrigation performance in the Gediz River Basin of Turkey: water user associations versus cooperatives

The aim of this study is to compare the performance between Water User Associations (WUAs) and cooperatives in the Gediz River Basin in Turkey by applying a set of external comparative performance indicators. The indicators allow for the comparison of irrigation performance between the two organisations. Benchmarking indicators were used to best evaluate the differences, achievements and failures. The indicators included fee collection rate, cost recovery, general meeting attendance, irrigation and personnel intensity. The data was collected over a 7-year period from 1997 to 2003, inclusive. The article clearly shows that, with respect to the selected indicators, both WUAs and cooperatives performed well. Personnel intensity is the one area that both organisations could improve upon. Overall, WUAs function better than cooperatives. The findings and conclusions drawn from this research will be beneficial to managers responsible for policy-making decisions for the future attempts on irrigation management.     

参与式灌溉管理的现状及发展趋势

参与式灌溉管理是目前国际上灌溉管理改革的重要模式之一.参与式灌溉管理就是在政府的宏观调控扶持下,让灌区广大用水户参与到灌区的建设和管理的事务中来,按市场经济规律,并充分考虑灌区的特殊要求,经营管理灌区,使灌区良性运行.用水户参与管理的前提是组建用水户协会,用水户协会具有法人地位.其实质就是民主管理、广泛监督.介绍了参与式灌溉管理产生的背景、国内外的发展状况,分析了参与式灌溉管理的内涵、管理模式及成效,说明了用水户协会的特点、存在的问题及对策,并对其发展趋势作了展望.     

Pricing of irrigation water under alternative charging methods: Possible shortcomings of a volumetric approach

The European water framework directive aims to protect the environmental quality of water and encourage its efficient use. EU member states are required to implement efficient water management systems and appropriate water-pricing methods. This paper examines the economic effects that may arise given the introduction of two different methods for pricing irrigation in the Mediterranean area. The considered pricing methods charge farmers for the costs incurred by water user associations (WUAs) in managing water distribution networks. The first method, based on the metered use of water by farms, is known as the volumetric pricing method. The second is an area-based pricing method, whereby fees are charged per hectare according to the estimated average water use for each crop. The economic effects and the impacts on the water usage of these two schemes are analyzed using a mathematical model that represents the farm sector in a Mediterranean area that relies on a dam for irrigation. The possible effects are analyzed under two scenarios: first, the methods are applied to the observed water-pricing conditions, second, an additional charge is introduced to recover unaccounted costs of the water supply system (e.g., long-term costs related to infrastructure, and the operational and maintenance costs of dams) in line with the water framework directive principle of cost recovery. The results show that the introduction of an additional charge via the volumetric pricing method could stimulate the substitution of water provided via collective networks with groundwater. This could adversely affect the financial situation of the WUA and have negative environmental consequences. This negative outcome does not arise in the case that an additional charge is applied via the area-based pricing method.     

Water Pricing and Sustainability of Self-Governing Irrigation Schemes

The sustainability of self-governingirrigation schemes is currently underpressure in many countries as publicfinancial support is decreasing.Furthermore, growing global concernregarding water scarcity means thatefficient water use is essential.Theoretically the choice and implementationof a water-pricing system should play acentral role in achieving this objective,both by recovering water costs and byencouraging farmers to adopt more efficientbehaviour. In the Senegal River Delta newlyestablished water users associations (WUAs)have chosen low water charges, which areaffordable for the majority of farmers butwhich underestimate long-term maintenancecosts. Combined with the difficulty ofcollecting and managing farmers' fees, thischoice has drawn them into a vicious circleleading to scheme deterioration and poorwater service. New alternatives have beendiscussed with them using a simulation toolthat takes into account both the watercosts and the farmers' incomes. Comparedwith the present fixed water charge basedonly on cultivated land, a two-part optionbased both on equipped and irrigated areasensures the recovery of fixed expenses suchas maintenance, while encouraging farmersto intensify their farming systems byadopting double cropping. Neverthelesschoosing a relevant water charge does notensure by itself the sustainability of anirrigation scheme. Combined supportproviding WUAS and farmers with efficientadvice regarding management andorganisational skills should alsocontribute significantly to achieve thisprime objective.     

Evaluation of water management systems in a tubewell irrigated farm

Land development, improved systems of irrigation and drainage, and proper irrigation scheduling are becoming more and more important for the success of command area development of the various major and minor irrigation schemes. For realistic planning and execution of such programmes or for improving existing ones, a systematic evaluation of the various components of the existing systems would be necessary but is invariably lacking. This paper presents an attempt made in this direction at C.S.S.R.I. farm, Karnal (India) to evaluate the integrated effect of water management technology on the efficiency of the irrigation system. The parameters selected for evaluation were the efficiencies of pumping, conveyance and field application. Besides these three parameters, water use efficiency, an index of crop production per unit of water applied, was also evaluated.Investigations revealed that pumping efficiency for electrically driven centrifugal pumps was about 52% and the corresponding value for diesel engine run pumps sets was 30%. The conveyance efficiency in the study area was as high as 93% because the seepage loss in the field channels laid in the alkali soils of the study area was only 7%. The field layout for water application in the study area consisted of long, narrow borders. The water application efficiency for this system was 58% for a wheat crop and 42% for rice. The overall system efficiency for wheat crops was observed to be 54% as against a value of 39% for rice.The observed average total water requirements and water use efficiencies for wheat were 46 cm and 70 kg/ha cm^?1 and for rice 150 cm and 46 kg/ha cm^?1, respectively. At these efficiencies, it was also noted that a cavity tubewell would command an area of 4.5 ha, with rice and wheat as the principal crop rotation.From this study, it can be inferred that reasonably high irrigation system efficiencies (54% as against the national average of about 30%) are possible with good water management at farm level.     

Management evaluation of Water Users Associations using benchmarking techniques

The development of different tools to evaluate the performance of Water Users Associations (WUAs) is an important practice for improving water and energy management, together with other production costs. One of these tools is the Benchmarking technique, which is based on the comparison between different WUAs to determine the best practices in each of them.In this paper, a Benchmarking process is applied to seven WUAs located in Castilla-La Mancha (Spain) during three irrigation seasons (2006-2008). The performance indicators developed by the International Programme for Technology and Research in Irrigation and Drainage (IPTRID) are used, while new indicators dealing with production and energy are proposed. The goals of this paper are to group WUAs with the same characteristics, using performance and energy indicators, and to reduce the set of indicators using statistical methods. The most important indicators, easy to obtain and yielding result in maximum information are retained for further use.Three proposals reducing the initial number of indicators were proposed, with an aim of being useful for future applications based on characterizing WUAs. Indicators results highlighted that irrigable areas can be grouped based on the application of drip irrigation systems and those with sprinkler irrigation systems. When using groundwater resources, no significant differences were observed for energy consumption between these irrigation systems. This can be explained by the indicator energy load index (ICE, m), which had similar values in all WUAs analyzed. According to annual irrigation water supply per unit irrigated area (V_TSr, m³ ha⁻¹), the highest values (between 5200 m³ ha⁻¹ and 6800 m³ ha⁻¹) were obtained in WUAs with sprinkler irrigation systems, which contained crops characterized by high water requirements, compared to the V_TSr (less than 1800 m³ ha⁻¹) of WUAs with drip irrigation systems, with crops that required less volume of irrigation water. Regarding production efficiency indicators, in drip irrigation systems the high presence of vineyards, almond and olive trees, crops with low water requirements, explained high values of gross margin per unit irrigation delivery (MBVs, € m⁻³)(close to 0.82 € m⁻³) in comparison with sprinkler irrigation systems (close to 0.36 € m⁻³).     

Using satellite remote sensing to assess irrigation performance in Water User Associations in the Lower Gediz Basin, Turkey

The aim of this research was to assess the irrigation performance of the Salihli Right Bank, Salihli Left Bank, Ahmetli, Gokkaya, Turgutlu, Mesir, Sarikiz, Gediz, Menemen Right Bank and Menemen Left Bank Water User Associations (WUAs) in the Lower Gediz Basin in western Turkey, using remote sensing techniques. To reach this aim the performance of the irrigation system for the 2004 irrigation season was determined according to five indicators, namely overall consumed ratio (e_p), relative water supply (RWS), depleted fraction (DF), crop water deficit (CWD) and relative evapotranspiration (RET). Potential and actual evapotranspiration parameters used in determining these indicators were estimated according to the Surface Energy Balance Algorithm for Land (SEBAL) method using NOAA-16 satellite images.Seasonal averages of these indicators ranged from 0.59 to 2.26 for e_p, 0.47-1.66 for RWS, 0.43-1.31 for DF, 180.5-269.5 mm month⁻¹ for CWD, and 0.61-0.74 for RET. According to the seasonal average values of all the performance indicators, the irrigation performance of all WUAs was usually poor. The performance indicators showed that less irrigation water was supplied to WUAs than was needed. It was concluded that proximity to the source could be an advantage in obtaining water, and that when water was insufficient, groundwater in the crop root area could be used.     

Drought response of rice at different nitrogen levels using line source sprinkler system

Summary In rainfed rice, the nitrogen status of soil and plant is closely related to the moisture regime in the soil. The lower the soil moisture content, the lower the nitrogen use efficiency in the plants.In this study, the yield and growth responses of four rice cultivars to seven irrigation and three nitrogen levels were evaluated using the line source sprinkler system. Visual observations on the degree of drought reaction and measurement of leaf water potential (LWP) were also made.The effect of drought was least on the traditional variety Kinandang Patong and most on the modern variety IR 20. Increasing nitrogen levels from 0 (no nitrogen fertilizer) to 60 and 120 Kg N/ha increased the degree of water stress. This also resulted in decreased LWP especially when the total water applied was minimal. At all levels of nitrogen, Kinandang Patong had significantly higher LWP than IR 20. There was a curvilinear decrease in the number of days to heading and a linear increase in plant height and dry matter production with increase in total water applied.The yield-water-fertilizer relationships of the four cultivars revealed different production surfaces. The early-maturing IR 52 rice gave the highest grain yield at 120 kg N/ha and with maximum water application of 850 mm. Without nitrogen fertilizer application, Kinandang Patong gave the highest predicted yield with 550 mm of water applied. At 120 kg N/ha and 550 mm of water, IR 36 was superior in yield to other rices tested.Results suggest that in areas of uncertain moisture supply, nitrogen application rate should be reduced from that normally used for irrigated rice.     

Performance assessment of irrigation water management in old lands of the Nile delta of Egypt

This paper provides the methodology and results of a cross-scale diagnostic performance assessment program of the irrigation water management in the old lands of the Nile Delta of Egypt. The analysis was done at three levels; main canal level, branch canals level and on-farm level of the Meet Yazid command (82,740 ha) for the year 2008?C2009 to highlight areas for improvement. At the main canal level the annual average percentage of irrigation water returning to drains and groundwater was 53% of the total water supplied. Since Meet Yazid lies at tail end of the delta, and there is groundwater salinity, opportunities for reuse are increasingly limited moving north to Lake Burullus. This would indicate opportunities for real water savings. The results of monthly relative water supply of the main canal indicated mismatch between demand and supply especially during the winter months, and when supply is low farmers do reuse drainage or groundwater. Also, the assessment of the three branch canals showed non-uniformity of water distribution and mismatch between demand and supply even when comparing improved and non-improved canals. At the on-farm level in paddy fields, the amount of irrigation flows to drains and saline sinks varied from 0.46 to 0.71 of inflow. In spite of these values of non-uniformity and low depleted fraction, the relative evapotranspiration (ratio of actual to potential) evaporation was uniformly high, indicating most crops of most farmers were not water stressed, which is also confirmed by the high yield values. The average values of productivity per unit water depleted by ET_act were 1.04 and 1.05 kg/m³ for rice and wheat fields, respectively, with yields of rice and wheat at 8 and 6 t per ha respectively. On farm and tertiary improvements alone will not yield real water savings, as excess water in the main canal and drains will continue to flow out of the system. Rather the focus should first be on supplies to the main canal, accompanied by more precise on farm and water delivery practices at branch and tertiary levels, and ensuring that environmental flows are met. There is an added advantage of focusing on this tail end region of Egypt that this response would lessen vulnerability to reuse of polluted and saline water.     

Facilitating User Participation in Irrigation Management

This paper examines various factors which contribute to performance of water user associations. The capability of collective organizations such as WUAs to develop appropriate rules and to enforce them while keeping the level of conflict low is considered to be the core of organizational performance. We focus on the processes in collective organizations with greater attention to costs of working together. Four factors representing benefits and costs, the rights held by the WUAs, magnitude of expected benefits, external assistance received and leadership explain most of the differences in performance. The prospect of benefits is a necessary condition for individuals to act collectively. But it is not sufficient. Expected organizational costs need to be low. The prospect of costs being low or being absorbed by one or more individuals – either external agents or internal leaders – provides an encouraging environment. Effective internal leadership appears to be essential as it can lead to greater congruence in interests and greater possibility of mutual assurances which are critical for collective action.     

A Farmer-Centered Analysis of Irrigation Management Transfer in Mexico

With the rewritten Article 27 of the Mexican Constitution and the National Water Law of 1992, Mexico embarked on an ambitious program of transferring the management of many irrigation systems to local user groups, primarily farmers. By 1996, 372 water user associations had been formed to control water delivery to 2.92 million hectares. During this time water prices increased by 45–180% and government O&M subsidies were eliminated. Limited economic analysis of stakeholder impact has been conducted of the irrigation management transfer (IMT) program. This research effort pilots a partial budget analytical framework for analyzing the social benefits and costs of IMT. Two irrigation modules near Culiacan, Sinaloa were selected as case studies. Results reveal that even with significantly higher water prices, water users have invested more in their systems than during the post-IMT period and consider their overall irrigation costs to be lower. Lower transaction costs in the pre-IMT period explain the majority of these cost savings. Efforts to quantify incremental benefits and costs associated with IMT at the module and district levels proved difficult given the unavailability of reliable, time series information.     

Linking hydro-meteorological factors to the assessment of nutrient loadings to streams from large-plotted paddy rice fields

Excessive nutrient loadings from rice paddy fields has been a great concern in Korea as rice paddy area spans over 1,153,000 ha, which covers approximately 60% of the total agricultural land area in Korea. The principal tasks of this study included undertaking work to better identifying the scope of the nutrient loadings from paddy fields to assess their adverse effects. Hydro-meteorological factors, rainfall and surface discharge, were considered as the major driving forces of nutrients into the water. A Generalized Regression Neural Network (GRNN) model was applied and its capability evaluated to predict the nutrient loading into the neighboring water. The 15 ha paddy fields surrounded by drainage and irrigation channels were chosen as a study area. Field data, such as rainfall, quantities of irrigation and discharge water, and nutrient contents (total nitrogen (T-N) and total phosphorus (T-P)) from two different water sources, were obtained throughout the study period. Simulation results showed that surface discharge had a positive correlation with rainfall (R = 0.84). In addition, the resulting predictions for nutrient concentrations corresponding to surface discharge were varied (R = 0.72 and 0.40 in total nitrogen and total phosphorus, respectively). This study found that both natural and artificial variations of nutrient contents in irrigation streams were significantly influenced the model results of nutrient predictions. Therefore, the nutrient loadings into the neighboring water can be accurately described with a more comprehensive and sufficient representation of both environmental inputs and hydrological processes.     

Estimation of water levels in a main drainage canal in a flat low-lying agricultural area using artificial neural network models

The Chiyoda basin is located in the Saga Prefecture of the Kyushu Island, Japan, and lies next to the tidal compartment of the Chikugo River, into which excess water in the basin is drained away. This basin has a total area of approximately 1100 ha and is a typical flat and low-lying agricultural area. The estimation of the water levels at the gates and along the main drainage canal is a crucial issue that has recently been the subject of much research. At these locations farmers and managers need to control the operation of the irrigation and drainage systems during periods of cultivation. An attempt has been made to apply a feed-forward artificial neural network (FFANN) to model and estimate the water levels in the main drainage canal. The study indicated that the artificial neural network (ANN) could successfully model the complex relationship between rainfall and water levels in this flat and low-lying agricultural area. Input variables and the model structure were selected and optimized by trial and error, and the accuracy of the model was then evaluated by comparing the simulated water levels with the observed ones during an irrigation period in July 2007. The water levels at two locations, located upstream and downstream of a main drainage canal, were investigated by using a time series at intervals of 20, 30, and 60 min. At these intervals, rainfall and tide water levels in the Chikugo River were measured, and the backward time-step numbers of the input variables of rainfall and tide water level were searched. For the upstream location, the optimal combination yielding good agreement between the observed and estimated water levels was obtained when the interval of the time series was 60 min. The number of backward time-steps of the input variables of rainfall and tide water level were 5 and 4, respectively. In contrast to the downstream location, the optimal combination was obtained for the interval time series of 20 min with 4 backward time-steps for both the input variables of rainfall and tide water level. The present study could provide farmers and managers with a useful tool for controlling water distribution in the drainage basin, and reduce the cost of installing water level observation points at many locations in the main drainage canal.