Fever and associated clinical haematologic and blood biochemical changes in the goat and other animal species

Summary

Acute febrile diseases are characterized by specific and non‐specific symptoms. The non‐specific responses are presented under the headings: fever, inflammation and pain, experimental models for investigating febrile reactions, haematologic changes, blood biochemical changes, cardiovascular effects, changes in gastric function, and the effects of fever upon pharmacokinetics of drugs. It was the purpose of this review to describe present concepts of thermoregulation and fever, the associated reactions produced by bacterial pyrogens and the mechanisms of these reactions. The available data illustrate, that many questions have not yet been clearly answered.

However, the entire field of research involving endogenous substances, such as interleukin‐1, is now moving ahead with great speed. Furthermore, there is some evidence which suggests that fever and the associated lower plasma zinc and iron levels act together as a co‐ordinated non‐specific host defence mechanism. Since experimental fever has a distinct effect upon the pharmacokinetics of drugs, more attention should be given to this aspect.     

Endotoxin-induced fever and associated haematological and blood biochemical changes in the goat: the effect of repeated administration and the influence of flurbiprofen

Flurbiprofen, a potent non-steroidal anti-inflammatory and antipyretic agent, was given as an intravenous infusion (2 mg/kg) followed by a bolus injection of 1 mg/kg six hours later. After drug administration body temperature and rumen contractions were slightly depressed, whereas urea values gradually increased; serum sorbitol dehydrogenase (SDH) activity, plasma iron concentration and the number of circulating lymphocytes were significantly lower. Intravenous injection of endotoxin from Escherichia coli O111B4 (0.1 microgram/kg) caused shivering, fever, inhibition of rumen contractions, changes in heart rate, lymphopenia, neutropenia followed by neutrophylic leucocytosis, changes in urea values, hypoferraemia, hypozincaemia and a decline in serum alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity, whereas gamma-glutamyltranspeptidase, glutamic oxalacetic transaminase, lactic dehydrogenase and SDH values were not significantly altered. Pretreatment with flurbiprofen completely abolished the febrile reactions to endotoxin. The endotoxin-induced inhibition of rumen contractions was only delayed. The drug blocked the initial tachycardia to endotoxin but did not prevent the secondary biphasic increase in heart rate. Flurbiprofen failed to modify the endotoxin-induced decrease in both plasma zinc and serum ALP activity whereas the decline in plasma iron concentration was delayed. After drug pretreatment the changes in circulating white blood cells were more pronounced. These data demonstrate that most of the haematological, blood biochemical and clinical effects of endotoxin cannot be blocked by flurbiprofen, and that these effects are not due to the increase in body temperature alone. Tolerance induced by repetitive daily intravenous administration of endotoxin resulted in an almost complete abolition of all the effects. However, the plasma iron values from tolerant goats were significantly lower than those from non-tolerant animals, which demonstrates that the development of a refractory state can result in modification of this biochemical parameter.     

Atrophic rhinitis in swine and other animal species

Evidence that cattle, goats and rabbits may suffer from natural diseases equivalent to porcine atrophic rhinitis is presented. Etiology and course of the progressive (enzootic) and non-progressive (sporadic) forms of atrophic rhinitis in pigs are discussed and compared with known data about similar diseases in other animals. It seems that atrophic rhinitis caused by toxigenic strains of Pasteurella multocida may be a disease of different animal species.     

甜菜碱对山羊产奶量和血液生化指标的影响

当前甜菜碱作为一种添加剂广泛应用于动物饲料中。甜菜碱是胆碱的氧化产物,在很多重要的生理代谢过程中具有代替蛋氨酸的作用。本试验通过在Mur-ciano-Granadina奶山羊的饲料中添加甜菜碱来研究对其产奶量和血液生化指标的影响。从拥有250只Murciano-Granadina奶山羊的饲养场选择60只泌乳期山羊,尽量保持年龄和胎次(2.5胎)的一致性。将山羊分为2个处理,每个处理30只羊,处理1饲喂基础饲料,处理2在基础饲料中添加4g/kg甜菜碱(此处所用甜菜碱为无水甜菜碱)。结果显示,饲喂添加甜菜碱饲粮的山羊与对照组相比具有较高的乳脂含量(分别为5.2%、4.8%,P0.05),在产奶量上添加甜菜碱组与对照组之间显著差异不显著(平均为1.8kg/d)。血液甘油三酯含量不同组别存在显著差异,对照组甘油三酯含量为0.76mmol/L,添加甜菜碱组甘油三酯含量为0.48mmol/L(P0.05)。甜菜碱对山羊乳汁成分影响的作用机理需要进一步研究。     

Minimal changes in blood cell counts and biochemical values associated with prolonged isoflurane anesthesia of horses

The potential toxicity to horses of 7.33 +/- 0.87 SD minimal alveolar concentration hours of isoflurane anesthesia was evaluated by sequential determination of blood cell counts, electrolyte concentrations, and certain blood chemical values. Minimal or no serious toxicosis was observed for up to 7 days after anesthesia was terminated.     

Beyond BSE: Transmissible spongiform encephalopathies in other animal species

There are several other diseases besides BSE which belong to the group of transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSE). Although most mammals can be experimentally infected with the agent of these diseases, generally only single representatives of the orders Artiodactyla (cloven-hoofed animals), Carnivora (carnivores) and Primates (humans and monkeys) are naturally infected in the field. An overview of the current state of knowledge on TSE in several species like exotic ruminants, deer, mink and cats is presented. Etiological, clinical, anatomic-pathological and epidemiological aspects are described.     

Evaluation of cellular and biochemical parameters of blood and peritoneal fluid following exploratory laparotomy in the goat

To evaluate the effects of exploratory laparotomy on cellular and biochemical parameters of blood and peritoneal fluid, an experiment was conducted using 10 Iranian cross-bred male goats. Approximately 10 ml of blood and 1-1.5 ml of peritoneal fluid were collected from all animals prior to operation for estimation of control values. Exploratory laparotomy was performed under local analgesia. Blood and peritoneal fluid samples were collected at 24, 48, 72 and 96 h after exploratory laparotomy. The results revealed that after exploratory laparotomy, the number of white blood cells and the percentage and absolute number of neutrophils and band neutrophils significantly increased (P < 0.05). However, the percentage of lymphocytes decreased significantly (P < 0.05). The concentrations of blood urea nitrogen significantly increased (P < 0.05). Furthermore, following the operation, the percentage and absolute number of neutrophils in the peritoneal fluid significantly increased (P < 0.05). In contrast, the percentage of lymphocytes in the peritoneal fluid decreased significantly (P < 0.05). The concentration of protein in the peritoneal fluid increased significantly (P < 0.05).     

几种珍稀猛禽的血液及生化指标分析

目前国内猛禽血液分析的资料几近空白,本研究对北京动物园和IFAW北京猛禽救助中心的14种22只猛禽血液指标进行了统计和分析,试图通过血液生化参数的对比,了解猛禽的健康状况和伤病原因,从而推动对猛禽健康状况的评定以及伤病猛禽的救助和治疗,对猛禽的救助工作意义重大。     

Pathological changes in the mammary gland and biochemical changes in milk of the goat following oral dosing with leaf of the Avocado (Persea americana)

Two varieties of avocado leaves (Persea americana var Guatemalan and var Mexican) were administered to lactating goats. The Mexican variety was without effect. The Guatemalan variety in doses exceeding 20 g fresh leaf per kg bodyweight, produced damage to the mammary gland with decreased milk production. The lesions were characterised by oedema and reddening, with clots in the large ducts. Microscopically, there was widespread degeneration and necrosis of the secretory epithelium, the necrotic cells sloughing into the lumen. There was no significant cellular inflammatory response. Concentrations of antitrypsin in the milk, indicating changes in vascular permeability, increased rapidly 15 h after a single high dose, coinciding with palpable oedema. Concentrations of NAGase, indicating cell damage, increased after 24 h. Goats given multiple doses followed a similar pattern but the initial response was delayed. The toxic principle, and its mode of action in selectively damaging mammary secretory cells, remains to be determined.     

Application of the ASVCP guidelines for the establishment of haematologic and biochemical reference intervals in Icelandic horses in Austria

Background

Despite the increasing popularity of Icelandic horses, published reference intervals (RIs) in this breed are rare. Due to their isolation and their small gene pool, alterations in some variables are likely and some possible breed-specific peculiarities have been described. The purpose of the present study was the establishment of comprehensive RIs in Icelandic horses according to recently published guidelines.In a prospective observational study, blood samples were collected from the jugular vein of 142 Icelandic horses into EDTA and serum tubes. Reference intervals were established for haematologic and biochemical analytes on the Advia 2120i™ and the Dimension ExL™ by established methods. RIs were defined as central 95 % intervals bounded by the 2.5th and 97.5th percentiles with their 90 % confidence intervals, calculated according to recently published ASVCP guidelines. An inhouse-developed quality control system using observed total allowable error was used for the surveillance of the internal quality control preceding the measurements.

Results

The RIs were as follows: haematocrit: 0.29–0.39, RBC: 5.79–8.63 T/l, haemoglobin: 102.0–142.3 g/l, MCV: 42–51 fl, platelets: 146–263 G/l, WBC: 4.13–8.57 G/l, segs: 1.98–4.73 G/l, lymphocytes: 1.25–3.49 G/l, monocytes: 0.06–0.31 G/l, eosinophils: 0.04–0.50 G/l, glucose: 4.0–5.7 mmol/l, urea: 3.2–6.4 mmol/l, creatinine: 79.6–141.4 μmol/l, total protein: 54.4–72.9 g/l, albumin: 27.7–36.8 g/l, total bilirubin: 8.1–21.1 μmol/l, triglycerides: 0.03–0.44 mmol/l, cholesterol: 1.75–2.90 mmol/l, ALP: 1.35–3.55 μkat/l, AST: 4.52–8.80 μkat/l, GLDH: 0.0–0.18 μkat/l, GGT: 0.11–0.39 μkat/l, CK: 2.53–6.52 μkat/l, LDH: 3.32–7.95 μkat/l, iron: 16.4–39.9 μmol/l, calcium: 2.69–3.19 mmol/l, phosphate: 0.5–1.3 mmol/l, magnesium: 0.6–0.9 mmol/l, sodium: 134–141 mmol/l, potassium: 3.6–4.7 mmol/l, chloride: 100–105 mmol/l.

Conclusions

Reference intervals of several haematologic and biochemical analytes differed from the transferred historical reference intervals applied to equine samples in the authors’ laboratory. These might be of clinical importance in some analytes such as creatine kinase.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13028-015-0120-4) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.