Wood drying process: impact on Scots pine lumber durability

There are indications that the drying process may have negative effects on the natural durability of wood. The impact of various drying processes on the durability of Scots pine lumber has been evaluated with mass loss in a decay test with brown rot fungus, Coniophora puteana, as measure of the decay resistance of sapwood and inner and outer heartwood. Drying with or without steam conditioning was performed in six different series: air drying, kiln drying at temperature ranges commonly used in Swedish sawmills at 70°C and 90°C with two different regulation principles, and one high-temperature drying at 110°C. Durability varied considerably both between and within boards. Sapwood showed considerable less durability than heartwood. No difference in durability was found between inner heartwood and outer heartwood. Air-dried heartwood showed the highest durability compared to other drying series. The lowest durability in sapwood and heartwood was found for series dried at the 90°C temperature level with high material temperature early in drying. The interpretation is that the duration of high material temperature at high moisture content (MC) is the critical combination for decay resistance in heartwood. Steam conditioning after drying decreased durability in sapwood.     

热处理工艺对竹材蠕变性能的影响

采用不同热处理温度和时间对6年生毛竹进行改性处理,并分析其蠕变特性的变化规律。结果表明:当热处理温度为140℃时,蠕变柔量随热处理时间的增加而减少;热处理温度为220℃时,蠕变柔量随热处理时间的增加而增加;热处理温度180℃的竹材恒定蠕变阶段的蠕变速率大于140℃时的蠕变速率,蠕变柔量由低温时随热处理时间增加而降低,向高温时随热处理时间增加而增加转变过渡。热处理时间为2和4 h时,其蠕变柔量随热处理温度升高而降低,减速蠕变阶段变化较为接近;而热处理时间为6 h时,其塑性随热处理温度的升高而增大,蠕变柔量也随之增大。     

Improving landscape connectivity in forest districts: A two-stage process for prioritizing agricultural patches for reforestation

Connectivity is a key concern in natural resource planning. Many studies have focused on the development of methods, tools and indices for the assessment of both components of connectivity: structural and functional. In particular, approaches based on graph theory principles have been recently proposed and are being increasingly applied to guide landscape connectivity conservation. However, forest planners and managers still need effective and operational methodologies to detect those landscapes where connectivity should be treated as a particularly critical conservation concern. In addition, in the Mediterranean, as in other parts of the world, socioeconomic changes in the last decades have driven the abandonment of many formerly cultivated lands. This poses both a challenge and an opportunity for managers intending to restore ecological connectivity in forested areas. In this context, setting adequate priorities for the reforestation of agricultural lands is of outmost importance. Here we show how a two-stage hierarchical methodology based on network analysis can be used to meet these needs. In particular, we apply a graph metric based on the measurement of habitat availability at the landscape scale (the Integral Index of Connectivity) to two Mediterranean forest districts in Spain with different management objectives and environmental heterogeneity. First, we identify those landscapes where efforts to improve forest connectivity should be concentrated. In a second stage, we prioritize within those landscapes the individual patches of agricultural lands that, being available for a potential reforestation program, would contribute most to uphold connectivity and ecological flows at wide spatial scales. We show how the extent of the agricultural patches is not strictly related to the contribution to connectivity they would provide if reforested, and how the results of such analysis vary with species traits (dispersal capabilities). We discuss the suitability of the proposed approach for forest landscape planning purposes and conclude that it can provide a useful diagnosis and helpful guidelines for the development of efficient reforestation programs that might be applied in a variety of situations for improving the ecological coherence of forest landscapes.     

Mycologg: a new accelerated test method for wood durability above ground

If not properly handled, selected and protected, wood will be degraded by bacteria, fungi and also insects. In order to ensure service life, durability tests are needed. Most accelerated laboratory tests on wood durability are focused either on fungi attacks or the uptake of moisture. Accelerated field tests in ground contact are of limited use since they could be difficult to reproduce and are sensitive to the characteristics of the soil in which the wood is placed. In addition, the results cannot be directly transferred to wood in use above ground because such wood is subjected to different set of conditions. The Mycologg is a new accelerated test method for estimating the durability of wood in above ground applications. The Mycologg allows the test panels to be subjected to the discolouring fungi and different RH (relative humidity) cycles simultaneously. Every 30 min, the temperature, the RH, and the moisture content in each test panel are measured and saved in special software. This allows for a constant update of the moisture patterns during a fungi attack. A trial was made with Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) heartwood samples, where fungal growth after 6, 8 and 10 weeks in the Mycologg were compared to weather exposure of duplicate samples after 12, 16, and 26 months. The results showed that 10 weeks into the Mycologg accelerated test method corresponds well to real-time weather exposure with respect to fungal discolouration.     

Temperature effect on Chalara fraxinea: heat treatment of saplings as a possible disease control method

Ash dieback is an emerging disease caused by the fungus Chalara fraxinea that severely affects Fraxinus excelsior and F. angustifolia stands in Europe. Previous studies have shown that this pathogen prefers temperatures around 20°C, while its growth in pure cultures at 30°C proved to be very limited. The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of temperature on the development and growth of C. fraxinea in pure cultures and in plant tissues, as well as to test the heat tolerance of F. excelsior saplings. The sensitivity of fungus to heat in ash tissues was higher than in pure cultures. Low isolation success rate from diseased ash tissue after a five‐hour hot water treatment at 36°C and the relatively high survival rate of ash saplings after hot water treatments at 36°C and 40°C indicate possibilities for the development of a C. fraxinea eradication method in ash saplings. Field monitoring showed that in hot weather periods, thermal conditions inside the ash tissues can be extreme enough to markedly decrease the viability of C. fraxinea in infected plant tissues.     

A review of basic aspects of heat transfer under impinging air jets

The literature on the heat transfer occurring from impinging hot air jets, now employed in many driers is reviewed. Variations in average and local heat transfer coefficients and other parameters are discussed in respect to jet air velocity, distance from jet to the impinged surface, and jet turbulence level. Areas which require additional research are pointed out, in addition to a discussion on elementary heat transfer and a brief review of research on mass transfer occurring under impinging jets.     

Fatigue life of structural plywood under two-stage panel shear load: a new cumulative fatigue damage theory

The fatigue life of structural plywood under two-stage panel shear load was experimentally examined. Two experimental conditions were determined for two-stage fatigue of plywood specimen: one used variable applied stress and the other used variable stress, loading waveform, and loading frequency, because fatigue life of wood composite under constant load depended on loading waveform and loading frequency as well as stress level. The most famous cumulative fatigue damage theory is the Palmgren-Miner rule, which is the summation of the ratio of the applied loading cycle to the fatigue life under each loading stage. However, the applicability of this rule to the two-stage fatigue of wood composites has not been investigated. It was first demonstrated in this study that the fatigue life of the plywood specimen reached in the two-stage fatigue test did not obey the Palmgren-Miner rule. Here, we propose the new cumulative fatigue damage model by modification of the Palmgren-Miner rule on the basis of the assumption that fatigue damage accumulates with loading cycle on a logarithmic scale. The newly proposed model was in good agreement with the fatigue life reached in the two-stage fatigue test.     

热处理对竹炭远红外发射率的影响

竹炭是一种优良的可再生生物质碳材料,具有独特的孔隙结构和吸附性能,常用于制备各种功能复合材料,而竹炭因其优异的远红外反射性能被广泛应用于保暖织物和健康保健等领域。通过元素分析、FT-IR、BET和XRD等表征方法分析了热处理后竹炭的性能特征,并研究了竹炭远红外发射率的影响因素。结果表明:对竹炭进行热处理后,随着温度的上升,竹炭红外发射率呈现先维持相对稳定阶段而后上升的趋势,然后保持在较高值的现象。对竹炭进行表征后发现:当热处理温度低于600℃时,竹炭固定碳等组分相对稳定,其红外发射率保持稳定且无显著变化;在温度600~800℃时,其红外发射率与温度则呈线性正相关;当温度超过800℃时,竹炭红外发射率保持在较高值;比表面积试验表明800℃热处理时比表面积达到最大值,竹炭远红外发射率与其比表面积呈正相关,而与其平均孔径则呈负相关;XRD结果表明竹炭的结晶度会影响其远红外发射率,但关联性较弱。由此可知,竹炭热处理可以提高其远红外发射率,热处理以800℃为宜,远红外发射率性达到0.95,且竹炭远红外发射率主要受其固定碳质量分数影响,此外还受比表面积和孔径的影响。     

Coloring characteristics of in situ lignin during heat treatment

To investigate the effects of lignin on the discoloration of Black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia) wood during heat treatment, chromatic indexes of the extractive-free wood samples are examined at different moisture contents (MC) under oxygen and nitrogen environment, respectively. The organic acids are produced during heat treatment, resulting in pH decrease in the samples. Components absorbing visible light are formed during heat treatment, and oxygen and moisture contents have obvious effects on the decrease in L*, increase in a* value, yellowness (b*) and total color difference (ΔE) of the samples. It is found that the β-5, C _α C _β unsaturated bond, the conjugated carbonyl group, quinones structures, α, β-unsaturated ketone and α-C?=?O in lignin increased after heat treatment. The formation of condensation products, the low-molecular-weight phenolic substances and the oxidation products in lignin result in the increment of the light absorption within the entire visible region.     

Bond durability of kenaf core binderless boards II: outdoor exposure test

An outdoor exposure test was conducted on kenaf core binderless boards (pressing temperatures 200°, 180°, and 160°C; pressing pressure 3.0 MPa, time 10 min, target board thickness 5 mm, target board density 0.8 g/cm³) to estimate their bond durability. Modulus of rupture (MOR), modulus of elasticity (MOE), internal bonding strength (IB), thickness change, weight loss, Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectra, and color difference (ΔE*) by the CIE L^*a^*b^* system were measured at various outdoor exposure periods up to 19 months. These values were then compared with those of a commercial medium-density fiberboard (MDF; melamine-urea-formaldehyde resin; thickness 9.0 mm, density 0.75 g/cm³). Generally, dimensional stability and the retention ratios of MOR, MOE, and IB after the outdoor exposure test increased with increased pressing temperature of binderless boards. The MOR retention ratio of the kenaf core binderless boards with a pressing temperature of 200°C was 59.5% after 12 months of outdoor exposure, which was slightly lower than that of the MDF (75.6% after 11 months of outdoor exposure). Despite this, the bond durability of the kenaf core binderless boards should be viewed as favorable, especially when considering the fact that the retention ratio of 59.5% was achieved without binder and without obvious element loss. Part of this report was presented at the International Symposium on Wood Science and Technology, IAWPS2005, November 27-30, 2005, Yokohama, Japan     

装饰用薄木材色的热响应行为分析

借助CIE的L*a*b*标准色度学系统,研究了西南桦、云南松和云南铁杉装饰薄木在热处理过程中的材色变化特征。结果表明:随着处理温度提高和处理时间延长,装饰薄木的明度下降,处理前后色差增大;西南桦材色的热响应速度更快,变色主要发生于热处理开始的15 min内,云南松和云南铁杉对热处理的响应速度较慢,160℃以上的处理色差才显著增大,明度才有显著下降。     

Testing the durability of timber above ground: A review on methodology

The majority of timber products in outdoor use are exposed above ground, e.g. façades, terrace decking, playground equipment, garden furniture, windows, balconies or carports. In contrast, the durability of wood and wood products is most often determined in laboratory against Basidiomycete monocultures or in-ground field tests, where wood samples are submitted to permanent wetting. Worldwide, only a few above ground field test methods evaluating durability against fungal decay have been standardized. Wood used in above ground situations can be exposed to a wide range of moisture loads reflecting different design details such as varying shelter, distance to ground, ventilation and water trapping, whereas temperature and rainfall variations are overall influences on service life performance. The aim of this review was to gather information about standardized and non-standardized above ground field test methods used to determine the durability of wood and wood-based products. In total, more than 60 methods have been evaluated according to different criteria, such as principle set-up and design, severity of exposure and distance to ground. Their suitability to reflect a certain exposure under real-life conditions is discussed as well as practical aspects regarding acceleration measures, decay assessment and practicability, costs and time efforts.     

热处理方法对竹材失重率的影响

研究了热压法和汽蒸法两种热处理方法下的竹材失重率。在不同的热处理工艺下竹材的失重率是不同的,诸多影响因素中热处理温度是最主要的影响因素。随着热处理温度和热压时间的增加,竹材的失重率增大,特别是180～200℃阶段,竹材失重率增加的趋势较为明显。热处理方式的变化对其有影响,汽蒸法热处理的竹材失重率较小。     

Effect of intermittent heat treatment on crystallinity in wood cellulose

The effect of intermittent heat treatment on cellulose crystallites in wood was studied to evaluate quantitatively the changes of crystallinity induced by intermittent and continuous heating. The changes in crystallinity were found to be strongly affected by the intermittent heat treatment. The increased crystallinity, the width of the crystals, and the piezoelectric properties were the same for the first intermittent heating as for continuous heating. Further intermittent heating for the same time duration and temperature had no effect on the above properties, probably due to the stopping of the thermal reaction during the interval. Our results suggested that intermittent heat treatment has certain critical cooling temperatures that stop the thermal reaction and are closely related to the duration of the interval. Samples once exposed to a certain duration of heat treatment and then cooled need more time, about twice that of the first duration of intermittent heating compared with continuous heating, to reach maximum crystallinity in wood cellulose.     

Kinetic analysis of color changes in cellulose during heat treatment

This paper deals with the kinetics of the color changes of cellulose during heat treatment. The color of cellulose heated at 90–180°C was measured by a spectrophotometer and expressed by CIELAB color parameters. The values of L* decreased and those of a*, b* and Δ E* _ab increased at all the treatment temperatures. Several kinetic models, namely, the zero-order, first-order, second-order and autocatalytic model, were applied to the changes in the color values. Furthermore, the results of kinetic analysis using the best-fit model were compared to the results obtained from conventional kinetic models. It was suggested that the kinetic analysis using the best-fit model was the better way to accurately predict color changes during heat treatment. The values of apparent activation energy calculated from the changes of L*, a*, b* and Δ E* _ab were 125, 124, 118 and 120 kJ/mol, respectively. These values were similar to the reported values calculated from other chemical or mechanical properties.     

THE EFFECT OF HEAT TREATMENT ON DIFFERENT SPECIES WOOD COLOUR

Woodisnaturalmaterial,naturegivewoodsurfacecolor,g]oss,grain,qualitysenseetc-,whichconsititutedwoodaesthet-icfeeling.Forthisreson,peoplealwaysusedwide]ywoodtomakefurnitureanddecorating,andstlldiedonthequntitativetestingofwoodsurfacevisualphysicalmagnitude.tl-8jTreeswereprocessedoperationbyaseriesofworkingprocesstoformthewoodsurfacewhichwesawandtouchedonfur-nitureanddecorating.Inthesekindsofworkingprocess,whetherthevisualphysi-calmagnitudeofwoodsurfacehadvaria-tionsorthisvariationschangedwoodna…     

Evaluating durability of thermoplastic wood composites against basidiomycetes and development of a suitable test design

Abstract

Wood polymer composites (WPC) consist mainly of wood particles from non-durable softwoods. From experience in service life and laboratory testing it is known that WPC is not fully resistant against biological attack. Concerning durability testing, it is difficult to reach sufficient moisture content for fungal growth in the time frame of testing. Furthermore, the interpretation of test results is difficult, since the mass loss is measured but strength loss might be more important during service life. The relation between mass loss and strength loss is not deeply explored so far. Additionally moisture uptake causes an irreversible strength loss of WPC. Considering these problems a new test method for investigating the resistance of WPC against basidiomycetes is described in prEN 15534-1. In this paper, several test methods were carried out regarding their suitability for durability testing of WPC. The tests included various pre-wetting methods. After durability testing the mass loss and changes in strength and stiffness were evaluated. The results have shown that pre-wetting according to EN 84 is suitable to increase the moisture content. Furthermore strength and stiffness loss is higher than mass loss. The loss in mechanical properties is based on moisture uptake as well as fungal decay.     

Classification of the hot air heat treatment degree of larch wood using a multivariate analysis of near-infrared spectroscopy

In this study, hot air heat treatments of larch (Larix kaempferi) wood specimens were conducted at various temperatures (160–220 °C) and times (1–12 h) to classify the degree of hot air heat treatment using near-infrared (NIR) spectroscopy. NIR reflectance spectra were acquired from specimen cross-sections and were then preprocessed using the standard normal variate. Hierarchical clustering analysis (HCA) using the complete linkage and squared Euclidean distance was conducted to classify the three degrees of heat treatment. A principal component score plot of the NIR spectra was well grouped by the HCA grouping result, and the first component reflected the cluster analysis grouping well. A partial least squares discriminant analysis was performed to develop the discriminant regression model of the three heat treatment degrees. The R² and root mean square error of validation were 0.959 and 0.191, respectively. NIR is considered to be a good candidate to routinely measure the degree of hot air treatment for larch wood.