Venus upper atmosphere neutral composition: preliminary results from the pioneer venus orbiter

Measurements in situ of the neutral composition and temperature of the thermosphere of Venus are being made with a quadrupole mass spectrometer on the Pioneer Venus orbiter. The presence of many gases, incluiding the major constituents CO(2), CO, N(2), O, and He has been confirmed. Carbon dioxide is the most abundant constituent at altitudes below about 155 kilometers in the terminator region. Above this altitude atomic oxygen is the major constituent, with O/CO(2) ratios in the upper atmosphere being greater than was commonly expected. Isotope ratios of O and C are close to terrestrial values. The temperature inferred from scale heights above 180 kilometers is about 400 K on the dayside near the evening terminator at a solar zenith angle of about 69 degrees . It decreases to about 230 K when the solar zenith angle is about 90 degrees .     

Isotopic composition of the martian atmosphere

Results from the neutral mass spectrometer carried on the aeroshell of Viking 1 show evidence for NO in the upper atmosphere of Mars and indicate that the isotopic composition of carbon and oxygen is similar to that of Earth. Mars is enriched in (15)N relative to Earth by about 75 percent, a consequence of escape that implies an initial abundance of nitrogen equivalent to a partial pressure of at least 2 millibars. The initial abundance of oxygen present either as CO(2) or H(2)O must be equivalent to an exchangeable atmospheric pressure of at least 2 bars in order to inhibit escape-related enrichment of (18)O.     

Upper atmosphere and ionosphere of Mars

It is argued that the single-layer ionosphere at 125 kilometers discovered in the Mariner IV occultation experiment is an Fl region coinciding with the ultraviolet photoionization peak. The CO(2) density there must be of the order of 10(11) molecules per cubic centimeter. Such a density is consistent with the properties of the lower atmosphere by Mariner IV anid the temperature model of Chamberlain and McElroy if the atmosphere is mainly CO(2) below 70 kilometers. The absence of an F2 region can be explained even if the density ratio of O to CO(2) is 100 at 230 kilometers on the basis of the rapid conversion of O(+) to O(2) by CO(2). Thus a model with an exospheric temperature of 400 degrees K, a modest degree of CO(2) dissociation, and diffusive separation above 70 kilometers is possible.     

Atmosphere of Mars: Mariner IV Models Compared

Three classes of models for the atmosphere of Mars differ in identifying the main ionospheric layer measured by Mariner IV as being analogous to a terrestrial F(2), F(1), or E layer. At an altitude of several hundred kilometers, the relative atmospheric mass densities for these models (in the order named) are approximately 1, 10(2), and 10(4), and the temperatures are roughly 100 degrees , 200 degrees , and 400 degrees K. Theory and observation are in best agreement for an F, s model, for which photodissociation of CO(2), and diffusive separation result in an atomic-oxygen upper atmosphere, with O(+) being the principal ion in the isothermal topside of the ionosphere. The mesopause temperature minimum would be at or below the freezing point of CO(2), and dry ice particles would be expected to form. However, an F(1) model, with molecular ions in a mixed and warmer upper atmosphere, might result if photodissociation and diffusive separation are markedly less than would be expected from analogy with Earth's upper atmosphere. The E model proposed by Chamberlain and McElroy appears very unlikely; it is not compatible with the measured ionization profile unless rather unlikely assumptions are made about the values, and changes with height, of the effective recombination coefficient and the average ion mass. Moreover our theoretical heat-budget computations for the atmospheric region probed by Mariner IV indicate markedly lower temperatures and temperature gradients than were obtained for the E model.     

Atomic hydrogen on Mars: measurements at solar minimum

The Copernicus Orbiting Astronomical Observatory was used to obtain measurements of Mars Lyman-alpha (1215.671-angstrom) emission at the solar minimum, which has resulted in the first information on atomic hydrogen concentrations in the upper atmosphere of Mars at the solar minimum. The Copernicus measurements, coupled with the Viking in situ measurements of the temperature (170 degrees +/- 30 degrees K) of the upper atmosphere of Mars, indicate that the atomic hydrogen number density at the exobase of Mars (250 kilometers) is about 60 times greater than that deduced from Mariner 6 and 7 Lyman-alpha measurements obtained during a period of high solar activity. The Copernicus results are consistent with Hunten's hypothesis of the diffusion-limited escape of atomic hydrogen from Mars.     

Structure of Mars' Atmosphere up to 100 Kilometers from the Entry Measurements of Viking 2

The Viking 2 entry science data on the structure of Mars' atmosphere up to 100 kilometers define a morning atmosphere with an isothermal region near the surface; a surface pressure 10 percent greater than that recorded simultaneously at the Viking 1 site, which implies a landing site elevation lower by 2.7 kilometers than the reference ellipsoid; and a thermal structure to 100 kilometers at least qualitatively consistent with pre-Viking modeling of thermal tides. The temperature profile exhibits waves whose amplitude grows with altitude, to approximately 25 degrees K at 90 kilometers. These waves are believed to be a consequence of layered vertical oscillations and associated heating and cooling by compression and expansion, excited by the daily thermal cycling of the planet surface. As is necessary for gravity wave propagation, the atmosphere is stable against convection, except possibly in some very local regions. Temperature is everywhere appreciably above the carbon dioxide condensation boundary at both landing sites, precluding the occurrence of carbon dioxide hazes in northern summer at latitudes to at least 50 degrees N. Thus, ground level mists seen in these latitudes would appear to be condensed water vapor.     

Composition and structure of the martian upper atmosphere: analysis of results from viking

Densities for carbon dioxide measured by the upper atmospheric mass spectrometers on Viking 1 and Viking 2 are analyzed to yield height profiles for the temperature of the martian atmosphere between 120 and 200 kilometers. Densities for nitrogen and argon are used to derive vertical profiles for the eddy diffusion coefficient over the same height range. The upper atmosphere of Mars is surprisingly cold with average temperatures for both Viking 1 and Viking 2 of less than 200 degrees K, and there is significant vertical structure. Model calculations are presented and shown to be in good agreement with measured concentrations of carbon monoxide, oxygen, and nitric oxide.     

Temperatures of the martian surface and atmosphere: viking observation of diurnal and geometric variations

Selected observations made with the Viking infrared thermal mapper after the first landing are reported. Atmospheric temperatures measured at the latitude of the Viking 2 landing site (48 degrees N) over most of a martian day reveal a diurnal variation of at least 15 K, with peak temperatures occurring near 2.2 hours after noon, implying significant absorption of sunlight in the lower 30 km of the atmosphere by entrained dust. The summit temperature of Arsia Mons varies by a factor of nearly two each day; large diurnal temperature variation is characteristic of the south Tharsis upland and implies the presence of low thermal inertia material. The thermal inertia of material on the floors of several typical large craters is found to be higher than for the surrounding terrain; this suggests that craters are somehow effective in sorting aeolian material. Brightness temperatures of the Viking 1 landing area decrease at large emission angles; the intensity of reflected sunlight shows a more complex dependence on geometry than expected, implying atmospheric as well as surface scattering.     

The hydroperoxyl radical in atmospheric chemical dynamics: reaction with carbon monoxide

From measurements of the photochemical rate of production of CO(2)(16,18) and CO(2)(16,16), produced from the low intensity photolysis of mixtures of CO, H(2)O, Ar, and O(2)(18,18), the rate constant for the reaction HO(2) + CO --> CO(2) + OH has been determined at 300 degrees K to be less than or equal to 10(-20) cubic centimeter per molecule per second. These measurements indicate that the reaction of thermalized HO(2) is of negligible importance as a sink mechanism for converting CO to CO(2) in either the troposphere or the stratosphere.     

Gravitational separation of gases and isotopes in polar ice caps

Atmospheric gases trapped in polar ice at the firn to ice transition layer are enriched in heavy isotopes (nitrogen-15 and oxygen-18) and in heavy gases (O(2)/N(2) and Ar/N(2) ratios) relative to the free atmosphere. The maximum enrichments observed follow patterns predicted for gravitational equilibrium at the base of the firn layer, as calculated from the depth to the transition layer and the temperature in the firn. Gas ratios exhibit both positive and negative enrichments relative to air: the negative enrichments of heavy gases are consistent with observed artifacts of vacuum stripping of gases from fractured ice and with the relative values of molecular diameters that govern capillary transport. These two models for isotopic and elemental fractionation provide a basis for understanding the initial enrichments of carbon-13 and oxygen-18 in trapped CO(2), CH(4), and O(2) in ice cores, which must be known in order to decipher ancient atmospheric isotopic ratios.     

Carbon dioxide clathrate in the martian ice cap

Measurements of the dissociation pressure of carbon dioxide hydrate show that this hydrate (CO(2) . 6H(2)O) is stable relative to solid CO(2) and water ice at temperatures above about 121 degrees K. Since this hydrate forms from finely divided ice and gaseous CO(2) in several hours at 150 degrees K, it is likely to be present in the martian ice cap. The ice cap can consist of water ice, water ice + CO(2) hydrate, or CO(2) hydrate + solid CO(2), but not water ice + solid CO(2).     

煤和沙柳的O_2/CO_2混合燃烧特性及相互作用研究

利用综合热分析仪在O_2/CO_2(纯O_2、纯CO_2、O_2/CO_2=1∶4、O_2/CO_2=5∶5、O_2/CO_2=4∶1)气氛条件下对胜利煤、生物质(沙柳)以及二者以不同比例(煤:沙柳=1∶4、煤:沙柳=5∶5、煤:沙柳=4∶1)混合后的试样进行了TG/DTG分析,结果表明:煤、沙柳及二者的混合物的燃烧特性参数随氧气浓度及其掺混比例的变化表现出一定的规律性,含氧量≥50%的样品的燃烧机理为多相燃烧,含氧量≤20%的样品的燃烧机理为均相燃烧。沙柳与煤的混合物在不同热解区间有不同程度的相互协同/抑制作用,其中沙柳含量为20%、含氧量为80%气氛条件下的沙柳和煤的混合物的相互协同性最好,纯O_2气氛下的混合物的相互抑制性最好。本研究的创新之处在于研究不同O_2/CO_2气氛下对生物质与煤混合物的共燃烧进行燃烧特性指数的分析及二者的相互作用。通过确定合理的生物质和煤以及O_2/CO_2气氛的混合比例可确保在共热解过程中生物质与煤的协同效果最佳,研究生物质和煤的燃烧特性及协同/抑制作用可为煤和生物质的有效洁净利用及降低环境污染起到积极的作用。     

Soil and surface temperatures at the viking landing sites

The annual temperature range for the martian surface at the Viking lander sites is computed on the basis of thermal parameters derived from observations made with the infrared thermal mappers. The Viking lander 1 (VL1) site has small annual variations in temperature, whereas the Viking lander 2 (VL2) site has large annual changes. With the Viking lander images used to estimate the rock component of the thermal emission, the daily temperature behavior of the soil alone is computed over the range of depths accessible to the lander; when the VL1 and VL2 sites were sampled, the daily temperature ranges at the top of the soil were 183 to 263 K and 183 to 268 K, respectively. The diurnal variation decreases with depth with an exponential scale of about 5 centimeters. The maximum temperature of the soil sampled from beneath rocks at the VL2 site is calculated to be 230 K. These temperature calculations should provide a reference for study of the active chemistry reported for the martian soil.     

Carbon Dioxide Transport by Ocean Currents at 25{degrees}N Latitude in the Atlantic Ocean

Measured concentrations of CO(2), O(2), and related chemical species in a section across the Florida Straits and in the open Atlantic Ocean at approximately 25 degrees N, have been combined with estimates of oceanic mass transport to estimate both the gross transport of CO(2) by the ocean at this latitude and the net CO(2) flux from exchange with the atmosphere. The northward flux was 63.9 x 10(6) moles per second(mol/s); the southward flux was 64.6 x 10(6) mol/s. These values yield a net CO(2) flux of 0.7 x 10(6) mol/s (0.26 +/- 0.03 gigaton of C per year) southward. The North Atlantic Ocean has been considered to be a strong sink for atmospheric CO(2), yet these results show that the net flux in 1988 across 25 degrees N was small. For O(2) the equivalent signal is 4.89 x 10(6) mol/s northward and 6.97 x 10(6) mol/s southward, and the net transport is 2.08 x 10(6) mol/s or three times the net CO(2) flux. These data suggest that the North Atlantic Ocean is today a relatively small sink for atmospheric CO(2), in spite of its large heat loss, but a larger sink for O(2) because of the additive effects of chemical and thermal pumping on the CO(2) cycle but their near equal and opposite effects on the CO(2) cycle.     

Gas bubbles in fossil amber as possible indicators of the major gas composition of ancient air

Gases trapped in Miocene to Upper Cretaceous amber were released by gently crushing the amber under vacuum and were analyzed by quadrupole mass spectrometry. After discounting the possibility that the major gases N(2), O(2), and CO(2) underwent appreciable diffusion and diagenetic exchange with their surroundings or reaction with the amber, it has been concluded that in primary bubbles (gas released during initial breakage) these gases represent mainly original ancient air modified by the aerobic respiration of microorganisms. Values of N(2)/(CO(2) + O(2)) for each time period give consistent results despite varying O(2)/CO(2) ratios that presumably were due to varying degrees of respiration. This allows calculation of original oxygen concentrations, which, on the basis of these preliminary results, appear to have changed from greater than 30 percent O(2) during one part of the Late Cretaceous (between 75 and 95 million years ago) to 21 percent during the Eocene-Oligocene and for present-day samples, with possibly lower values during the Oligocene-Early Miocene. Variable O(2) levels over time in general confirm theoretical isotope-mass balance calculations and suggest that the atmosphere has evolved over Phanerozoic time.     

Search for the viking 2 landing site

The search for the landing site of Viking 2 was more extensive than the search for the Viking 1 site. Seven times as much area (4.5 million square kilometers) was examined as for Viking 1. Cydonia (B1) and Capri (C1) sites were examined with the Viking 1 orbiter. The B latitude band (40 degrees to 50 degrees N) was selected before the final midcourse maneuver of Viking 2 because of its high scientific interest (that is, high atmospheric water content, surface temperature, possible near-surface permafrost, and a different geological domain). The Viking 1 orbiter continued photographing the Cydonia (B1) site to search for an area large and smooth enough on which to land (three-sigma ellipse; 100 by 260 kilometers); such an area was not found. The second spacecraft photographed and made infrared measurements in large areas in Arcadia (B2) and Utopia Planitia (B3). Both areas are highly textured, mottled cratered plains with abundant impact craters like Cydonia (B1), but smaller sectors in each area are partially mantled by wind-formed deposits. The thermal inertia, from which the grain size of surface material can be computed, and atmospheric water content were determined from the infrared observations. A region in Utopia Planitia, west of the crater Mie, was selected: the landing took place successfully on 3 September 1976 at 3:58:20 p.m. Pacific Daylight Time, earth received time.     

秦岭火地塘林区不同海拔不同林型土壤CO_2、CH_4、N_2O通量研究

二氧化碳(CO_2)、甲烷(CH_4)、氧化亚氮(N_2O)是3种主要的温室气体,温带森林土壤是CO_2、N_2O重要的源,是CH_4重要的汇,以前的研究大部分都关注这3种温室气体在时间上的变化,而很少开展在空间变化上的研究。2014年10月至2015年10月,采用静态箱-气相色谱法对秦岭南坡火地塘林区不同海拔(海拔1 560、1 585、1 963、2 040、2 160m,分别为落叶阔叶林、温性针叶林、温性针叶林、寒温性针叶林、落叶阔叶林)森林土壤CO_2、CH_4和N_2O通量进行了为期1a的监测。结果表明,CO_2全年都为排放,季节波动较大,总体上随海拔增加排放量减少,海拔由低到高(包括3种林型)年排放量依次为:19.12、12.53、11.78、16.95、14.87t·hm^-2;CH_4全年主要为吸收,在非生长季出现排放,季节波动幅度较大,总体上随海拔增加吸收量增加,海拔由低到高年通量依次为:-2.57、-3.60、-5.94、-5.59、-3.92kg·hm^-2;N_2O全年以排放过程为主,存在吸收现象,季节波动幅度不大,海拔对其通量影响不明显,海拔由低到高年排放量依次为:0.23、0.62、0.63、0.60、0.95kg·hm^-2。土壤温度是影响CO_2、N_2O通量的关键因子。5个样地森林土壤CO_2通量与土壤铵态氮含量(20～40cm)显著相关(P<0.05)。高的土壤NH_4^+含量对CH_4的吸收有抑制作用。在冻融交替期,降雨对N_2O的通量有明显影响。海拔由低到高5个样地的GWP(全球增温潜势)分别为:119.13、12.65、11.85、17.02t·hm^-2和15.07t·hm^-2。     

Mars and Earth: origin and abundance of volatiles

Mars, like Earth, may have received its volatiles in the final stages of accretion, as a veneer of volatile-rich material similar to C3V carbonaceous chondrites. The high (40)Ar/(36)Ar ratio and low (36)Ar abundance on Mars, compared to data for other differentiated planets, suggest that Mars is depleted in volatiles relative to Earth-by a factor of 1.7 for K and 14 other moderately volatile elements and by a factor of 35 for (36)Ar and 15 other highly volatile elements. Using these two scaling factors, we have predicted martian abundances of 31 elements from terrestrial abundances. Comparison with the observed (36)Ar abundance suggests that outgassing on Mars has been about four times less complete than on Earth. Various predictions of the model can be checked against observation. The initial abundance of N, prior to escape, was about ten times the present value of 0.62 ppb, in good agreement with an independent estimate based on the observed enhancement in the martian (15)N/(14)N ratio (78,79). The initial water content corresponds to a 9-m layer, close to the value of >/=13 m inferred from the lack of an (18)O/(16)O fractionation (75). The predicted crustal Cl/S ratio of 0.23 agrees exactly with the value measured for martian dust (67); we estimate the thickness of this dust layer to be about 70 m. The predicted surface abundance of carbon, 290 g/cm(2), is 70 times greater than the atmospheric CO(2) value, but the CaCO(3) content inferred for martian dust (67) could account for at least one-quarter of the predicted value. The past atmospheric pressure, prior to formation of carbonates, could have been as high as 140 mbar, and possibly even 500 mbar. Finally, the predicted (129)Xe/(132)Xe ratio of 2.96 agrees fairly well with the observed value of 2.5(+2)(-1) (85). From the limited data available thus far, a curious dichotomy seems to be emerging among differentiated planets in the inner solar system. Two large planets (Earth and Venus) are fairly rich in volatiles, whereas three small planets (Mars, the moon, and the eucrite parent body-presumably the asteroid 4 Vesta) are poorer in volatiles by at least an order of magnitude. None of the obvious mechanisms seems capable of explaining this trend, and so we can only speculate that the same mechanism that stunted the growth of the smaller bodies prevented them from collecting their share of volatiles. But why then did the parent bodies of the chondrites and shergottites fare so much better? One of the driving forces behind the exploration of the solar system has always been the realization that these studies can provide essential clues to the intricate network of puzzles associated with the origin of life and its prevalence in the universe. In our own immediate neighborhood, Mars has always seemed to be the planet most likely to harbor extraterrestrial life, so the environment we have found in the vicinity of the two Viking landers is rather disappointing in this context. But the perspective we have gained through the present investigation suggests that this is not a necessary condition for planets at the distance of Mars from a solar-type central star. In other words, if it turns out that Mars is completely devoid of life, this does not mean that the zones around stars in which habitable planets can exist are much narrower than has been thought (114). Suppose Mars had been a larger planet-the size of Earth or Venus-and therefore had accumulated a thicker veneer and had also developed global tectonic activity on the scale exhibited by Earth. A much larger volatile reservoir would now be available, there would be repeated opportunities for tapping that reservoir, and the increased gravitational field would limit escape from the upper atmosphere. Such a planet could have produced and maintained a much thicker atmosphere, which should have permitted at least an intermittently clement climate to exist. How different would such a planet be from the present Mars? Could a stable, warm climate be maintained? It seems conceivable that an increase in the size of Mars might have compensated for its greater distance from the sun and that the life zone around our star would have been enlarged accordingly.     

Evolution of a nitrogen atmosphere on titan

Photochemical calculations indicate that if NH(3) outgassed from Titan it should have been converted to a dense N(2) atmosphere during the lifetime of the satellite. A crucial step in the process involves a gas phase reaction of N(2)H(4) with H. The most favorable conditions for this step would be the intermediate production of a CH(4)-H(2) greenhouse capable of raising the gas temperature to 150 degrees K. Subsequently about 20 bars of N(2) could have evolved. The pressure-induced opacity of 20 bars of N(2) should suffice to explain the recently measured 200 degrees K surface temperature. Unlike the situation on Jupiter, NH(3) is not recycled on Titan by reactions involving N(2) or N(2)H(4). This may explain the failure of recent attempts to detect NH(3) in the upper atmosphere of Titan.     

谷胱甘肽对蓝藻Anabaena7120固氮氧稳定性的增强效应

外源谷胱甘肽在一定程度上可消除氧对蓝藻Ａｎａｂａｅｎａ７１２０固氮活性的抑制。藻细胞在实验前２４ｈ进行暗处理，或是有光合抑制剂ＤＮＰ和ＣＣＣＰ存在时，谷胱甘肽对受氧伤害的蓝藻固氮活性的有益作用削弱或消失。氧和氢同时加入时，谷胱甘肽对受氧钝化的蓝藻固氮活性呈现较高的益效应。在有氧的情况（空气中）下，谷胱甘肽对受氧伤害的益藻固氮活性的有益作用比在厌氧（Ａｒ中）下的高。在含有５％ＣＯ２的大气中，或是添加