Seasonal variations in haematological data from Mediterranean tortoises (Testudo graeca and Testudo hermanni) in captivity

Reference values for a variety of haematological parameters in 18 Mediterranean tortoises of two species (Testudo graeca and Testudo hermanni) were determined on six occasions during the year. Statistically significant seasonal variations were demonstrated in all parameters.     

Rhinitis in long term captive Mediterranean tortoises (Testudo graeca and T hermanii)

Rhinitis is a common condition of captive Mediterranean tortoises (Testudo species). The interpretation of the results of the bacteriological examination of naso-oropharyngeal swabs from affected individuals has proved difficult, because the normal bacterial population of this region was unknown. No substantial differences in the strains of bacteria isolated from healthy individuals and from those affected by rhinitis could be found in this study. The report that Sendai virus was implicated in the genesis of rhinitis in tortoises could not be substantiated. Paired blood samples failed to show a rise in titres against Sendai virus in either study group.     

Post hibernational anorexia in captive Mediterranean tortoises (Testudo graeca and Thermanni)

Post hibernational anorexia in captive Mediterranean tortoises is an increasingly recognised condition. It is associated with increased blood urea and low blood glucose concentrations and dehydration. A theory to explain its underlying physiology is presented, based on studies of the seasonal and cyclic variations in the tortoises' blood composition. Measurements useful for predicting the condition are identified and a logical approach to therapy is proposed.     

Herpesvirus epidemic in Greek (Testudo hermanni) and Moorish land tortoises (Testudo graeca) in Switzerland

Based on an epidemic in Switzerland, the histopathological findings of a viremic Herpes infection in Spur-tailed and Spur-thighed mediterranean land tortoises are described for the first time. Horizontal viral transmission has been proved; the vertical transmission is suggested. An impression smear of the tongue enables an early clinical diagnosis.     

Weight and measurement data on tortoises (Testudo graeca and Testudo hermanni) and their relationship to health

Normal bodyweight and carapace lengths for two species of tortoise are presented and a comparison made with changes in bodyweight in sick tortoises. Using these parameters veterinary surgeons will have guidelines for assessing the degree of debility in a tortoise of any age or size. A number of examples are given.     

Atypical systemic mycobacteriosis in Hermann's tortoises (Testudo hermanni)

Background: Hermann's tortoise (Testudo hermanni) is a near threatened species found throughout southern Europe. Captive breeding of endangered species is subject to health risks, such as the stress of captivity and ambient conditions that may favor the emergence of infectious diseases. An episode of systemic atypical mycobacteriosis was investigated in six Hermann's tortoises from a captive population. The symptoms appeared in the form of anorexia, weakness, and lethargy, with inflammatory and edematous lesions of the hind limbs and tail. Four of the affected tortoises were euthanized and necropsied. Methods: Blood samples and joint aspirates were obtained for assessment. Euthanasia of four affected animals was performed. Postmortem examination included necropsy, histopathology, and mycobacterium detection by culture and polymerase chain reaction (PCR). In the other two animals, only hematology and blood biochemistry was carried out. Results: Hematological and blood biochemistry analyses gave inconsistent results. In joint aspirates, mononuclear cells with phagocytozed bacillary structures were observed. Ziehl-Neelsen stain revealed the presence of acid-fast bacteria. Granulomatous lesions were observed in liver, lungs, spleen, heart, muscle, kidney, and ovaries. Culture and identification were positive for mycobacteria and molecular sequencing led to the identification of Mycobacterium nonchromogenicum. Conclusions and clinical relevance: Although mycobacteriosis is rare in reptile collections, strict hygienic and prophylactic measures in species of high ecological value must be performed, especially if the animals are to be used for reintroduction projects.     

Use of carbenicillin in two species of tortoise (Testudo graeca and T hermanni)

A preliminary investigation of the blood levels of carbenicillin, after the administration of a single intramuscular injection, suggests that the tortoise's bladder may act as a reservoir of antibiotic that is available for resorption. This phenomenon could confound the establishment of a safe, effective dose regime for antibiotics, in tortoises, which are excreted in an unchanged active form in urine.     

Plasma concentrations of 25-hydroxycholecalciferol in 22 captive tortoises (Testudo species)

The plasma concentration of 25-hydroxycholecalciferol was measured in 13 adult Hermann's tortoises (Testudo hermanni), seven adult spur-thighed tortoises (Testudo graeca) and two adult marginated tortoises (Testudo marginata) during 2004. They were healthy, of both sexes, and kept in captivity under natural unfiltered sunlight in southern England with no dietary sources of cholecalciferol. Blood samples were taken in March, June and August, and the concentration of 25-hydroxycholecalciferol did not vary significantly with the seasons. However, the concentrations in the female tortoises were always significantly lower than in the males.     

Calcium and phosphorus values and their derivatives in captive tortoises (Testudo species)

Objective : To evaluate the relationships between total calcium and phosphorus and ionised calcium and phosphorus values in clinically healthy tortoises. Methods : Jugular blood samples were obtained from 25 tortoises, as part of a health screen of the population. These comprised Hermann’s tortoises, Testudo hermanni boettgeri, spur-thighed tortoises, Testudo graeca ibera, marginated tortoises, Testudo marginata, and horsfield tortoises, Testudo horsfieldi. Plasma from these samples were analysed for total calcium, ionised calcium and phosphorus levels. These samples were taken in the immediate posthibernation period, before the onset of reproductive activity. Results : Females exhibited statistically significantly higher levels of phosphorus. Ionised calcium and total calcium levels were elevated in females compared with males, but this was not statistically significant. Females did have statistically significantly higher calculated solubility indexes and statistically significantly lower ratios compared with males. Clinical Significance : This study has provided an insight into the ratios and solubility indexes in tortoises, and this information may lead to further understanding of the significance of these parameters in chelonians.     

Feasibility and variability of corneal esthesiometry in Hermann's tortoises (Testudo hermanni) depending on age and body weight

BackgroundHermann's tortoise is one of the most popular reptiles kept as pet which underlines the importance to reinforce the information needed to provide advanced and adequate veterinary care in exotic animal species. Therefore, the purpose of this study, performed in Testudo hermanni, was to evaluate corneal touch threshold (CTT) and its feasibility according to age and body weight.MethodsFifty-one healthy tortoises were classified in 2 groups (≤2 years [young; n = 25] and 8–10 years [subadult; n = 26]). Central CTT was measured by means of a Cochet-Bonnet esthesiometer and defined as the filament length required to elicit a blink in at least 3/5 applications. CTT feasibility according to body weight was also evaluated by diving the individuals in weight groups consisting of “lighter” (<400 g [n = 31]) and “heavier” (≥400 g [n = 20]) animals.ResultsMean CTT was 5.99 cm for the whole population (90% CI: 5.87–6.11), being 5.98 cm for young (90% CI: 5.81–6.15) and 6 cm for all subadult (90% CI: 6.00–6.00) tortoises, and 5.98 cm for lighter (90% CI: 5.84–6.13) and 6 cm for all heavier (90% CI: 6.00–6.00) tortoises. No statistical differences were detected between age and weight groups (P = 0.159 and P = 0.159, respectively). Three animals presented unilateral faint fluorescein uptake postesthesiometry (3/51; 2.9%) that resolved spontaneously within 48 hours.Conclusions and clinical relevanceCochet-Bonnet esthesiometer was a safe means of confirming high corneal sensitivity in all tortoises, which was high regardless of age. Increasing filament lengths would ultimately be required to determine the true corneal sensitivity scope of Testudo hermanni.     

Differences in helminth infections between captive and wild spur-thighed tortoises Testudo graeca in southern Spain: a potential risk of reintroductions of this species

Although the spur-thighed tortoise, Testudo graeca, is one of the most widely distributed species of tortoises, its natural populations are threatened through its whole range. Particularly at south-eastern Spain, the species is mainly threatened by habitat destruction and over-collection, given that this chelonian has been traditionally considered an appreciate pet. As south-eastern Spanish wildlife recovery centers shelter hundreds of captive animals mainly coming from illegal trade or captive-bred, there is a strong debate about what to do with these animals: maintaining them in captivity all along their lives or reintroducing them to wildlife. It is well known that the reintroduction of captive animals supposes a risk for the wild population due to the uncertainty of their genetic origin and to the possible spread of infectious diseases. However, despite the increasing evidence that infectious agents are a potential health hazard for wildlife, little is known about the risk that introduced parasites could suppose for the wild populations of spur-thighed tortoise. The present study investigates for the first time the presence of helminth eggs and worms in faeces from 107 wild and captive individuals collected from mid-March to mid-June 2010, and relates the findings to different environmental and host variables. Sixteen oxyurid species and the ascarid Angusticaecum holopterum were identified. This last nematode and the oxyurid species Tachygonetria palearticus and T. seurati had not been reported in Spanish wild T. graeca previously. The prevalence of oxyurid eggs and worms were 94% and 70%, respectively; while, ascarid eggs and worms were found in 26% and 5% of tortoises, respectively. Ascarid infections affected mostly captive animals and were associated to caparace deformities and symptoms of upper respiratory tract disease (p<0.05). Oxyurid infections were not associated to negative health traits and prevalence increased with age. In free-living tortoises, the distribution of pharingodonid genera also varied according to habitat; moreover, T. longicollis, T. pusilla, T. conica, T. robusta and Mehdiella stylosa where significantly more frequent in wild compared to captive tortoises (p<0.05). Study results highlight important differences in the nematode fauna of captive and free-living tortoises and questions one more time if the reintroductions of captive animals suppose a risk for the wild population since the former ones can harbor and distribute among free populations pathogens like ascarid nematodes.     

Influence of different dietary calcium levels on the digestibility of Ca, Mg and P in Hermann's tortoises (Testudo hermanni)

Calcium and phosphorus are very important minerals in reptile nutrition, but many diets are still not balanced. To achieve optimal growth, including a healthy skeleton and a strong shell, a well-balanced supply with these minerals is prerequisite. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the apparent digestibility in Hermann's tortoises of diets with different calcium levels with special emphasis on the digestibility of minerals. Eight adult Hermann's tortoises of the veterinary faculty in Zurich were used. The animals were housed indoors at a mean temperature between 23 degrees C and 26 degrees C. The animals were fed a diet, which consisted of vegetables, herbs and different supplementation of calcium carbonate. Daily faecal samples of all tortoises were collected from day 8 to day 12. A proximate analysis was performed and the HCl-insoluble ash was used as an indigestible natural indicator (marker) for the determination of the apparent digestibility of minerals. The calcium content of the mixed feedstuffs of diet I was 0.64% on a dry matter basis, and the Ca:P ratio in the food was 3:1. In diet II the Ca content was 1.29% on a dry matter basis, and the Ca:P ratio in the food was 6:1. The digestibility of Ca in diet I was 57%. The other examined minerals, Mg and P, had a digestibility of 46% and 58% respectively. In diet II the digestibility of Ca was 79%, of Mg 52% and of P 52%. The results of this study indicated, that higher Ca concentrations in the diet led to an increased apparent digestibility of Ca and Mg.