Inter‐ and intra‐individual differences in serum copper and zinc concentrations after feeding different amounts of copper and zinc over two lactations

The influence of different copper and zinc contents in rations on blood serum concentrations was tested in a feeding trial at the Institute of Animal Nutrition of the Federal Research Institute for Animal Health (FLI). A total of 60 German Holstein breed cows (38 first lactating and 22 second lactating cows) were tested. All animals received a diet based on maize‐ and grass silage ad libitum. The animals were divided into two groups with 30 cows each. Group A received concentrates supplemented with copper and zinc as recommended, whereas Group B was offered a concentrate with roughly double the amount of copper and zinc. Blood samples were taken several times during the lactation. The concentrations of copper and zinc in the serum were measured and correlations between trace element intake and their serum concentrations were calculated. The mean dry matter intake was significantly higher for cows in the second lactation (19.1 kg/day) than for cows in the first lactation (16.4 kg/day), whereas the DM‐intake was constant in the different feeding groups (17.3 and 17.4 kg/day). The correlation between feed intake in the first and the second lactation was r = 0.76. The copper concentration in the serum was not influenced by the different feedings (11.9 and 12.5 μmol/l), but high variations were found between the cows. The influence of the lactation number was not significant (12.1 and 12.4 μmol/l). In contrast to copper, the zinc concentration in the serum was significantly higher for Group B (14.0 μmol/l) than for Group A (12.2 μmol/l), respectively, for second lactating cows (13.8 μmol/l) in relation to 12.7 μmol/l for first lactating cows. The individual variation was also high as for copper. Neither the correlation between copper intake and copper serum concentration nor the correlation between zinc intake and zinc serum concentration was significant.     

Lipid mobilization in parturient cows.

The blood levels of calcium, inorganic phosphorus, magnesium, glucose and NEFA were studied in cows at the time around partus. Eight of 16 cows developed hypocalcaemic paresis. Besides hypocalcaemia the paretic cows showed lower levels of inorganic phosphorus and higher levels of glucose and NEFA than non-paretic cows 24 hrs. post partum. It is known that lipolysis is associated with uptake of calcium in adipose tissue. The calcium content in perirenal adipose tissue was however lower in paretic cows than in non-paretic parturient cows and lactating cows slaughtered 3–5 months after calving. The calcium content in omental adipose tissue was about the same in all 3 groups. Despite increased lipolysis the calcium content in adipose tissue is thus not increased in cows suffering from parturient paresis.     

Equal calcitonin response in paretic and non-paretic cows after intravenous calcium infusion

Seventeen cows divided into 3 groups were studied: Group 1 consisting of newly delivered cows (1–3 days post partum) suffering from parturient paresis; Group 2 comprising newly delivered (1–4 days post parturn) healthy cows and Group 3 consisting of non-pregnant, non-lactating cattle. All animals were given an intravenous standard Ca infusion, and blood samples were obtained before treatment and at intervals during a 3-hour period thereafter. Plasma levels of calcitonin (CT), calcium (Ca) and inorg. phosphate (P) were determined. No significant difference for the mean CT response existed between animals in Groups 1 and 2. Blood levels of inorg. P increased significantly with time in animals of Groups 1 and 2 but not in animals of Group 3.The finding here of a similar CT response after Ca stimulation in both paretic and non-paretic cows demonstrates that the C-cells in both groups of animals have the same capacity to secrete CT.     

Effect of 1,25 dihydroxyvitamin D3 on the calcium and magnesium metabolism of lactating cows

Administration of 1,25 dihydroxyvitamin D3 (1,25(OH)2D3) to lactating dairy cows resulted in increased dietary calcium absorption and elevated concentrations of plasma calcium. Dietary magnesium absorption was unaffected by 1,25(OH)2D3 however, plasma magnesium concentration was depressed. Injections of 1,25(OH)2D3 were effective in elevating plasma calcium concentrations in both normal and hypomagnesaemic cows. This indicates a potential use for 1,25(OH)2D3 to prevent and treat hypocalcaemic cows with or without concurrent hypomagnesaemia.     

GH secretory responses to ghrelin and GHRH in growing and lactating dairy cattle

Release of growth hormone (GH) is known to be regulated mainly by GH-releasing hormone (GHRH) and somatostatin (SRIF) secreted from the hypothalamus. A novel peripheral release-regulating hormone, ghrelin, was recently identified. In this study, differences of the GH secretory response to ghrelin and GHRH in growing and lactating dairy cattle were investigated and an alteration of plasma ghrelin levels was observed. The same amounts of ghrelin and GHRH (0.3 nmol/kg) were intravenously injected to suckling and weanling calves, early and mid-lactating cows and non-lactating cows. Plasma ghrelin levels were also determined in dairy cattle in various physiological conditions. The peak values of ghrelin-induced GH secretion were increased in early lactating cows compared to those in non-lactating cows. The relative responsiveness of GH secretion to ghrelin was also increased compared with that to GHRH in early lactating cows. GH secretory responses to GHRH were blunted in mature cows with and without lactation. Conversely, GHRH-induced GH secretory response was greater than that to ghrelin in calves, and also greater in calves than in mature cows. Plasma ghrelin concentrations were elevated in early lactating cows compared to those in non-lactating cows. Plasma GH concentrations were higher in suckling calves and early lactating cows compared with those in non-lactating cows. These results suggest that GHRH is an effective inducer of GH release in growing calves, and that the relative importance of ghrelin in contributing to the rise in plasma GH increases in early lactating cows.     

Hypocalcaemia associated with high dose rates of zinc oxide to lactating dairy cows

Clinical hypocalcaemia was associated with single doses of three oi more days; supply of zinc oxide to dairy cows for facial eczema control. Experimental hand dosing of a single dose of zinc oxide (40 and 120 mg Zn/kg b wt) to Jersey cows caused a significant drop in serum calcium concentration at 24 h followed by a rise to concentrations higher than controls at subsequent samplings over four days. At the highest zinc dose rate, 78% of serum calcium values were equal to or lower than the lowest control value at 24 h post dosing. Serum magnesium concentrations had a reciprocal relationship to the calcium levels at all samplings. Serum zinc concentrations were most elevated over the 48 h post dosing, returning to normal levels at the fifth day. Following the highest zinc dose milk yields were reduced by approximately 1.5 kg milk/cow/day for 48 h. Similar results were obtained when cows grazed pasture on which large amounts of zinc oxide had been sprayed.     

Hypocalcaemia associated with high dose rates of zinc oxide to lactating dairy cows

Clinical hypocalcaemia was associated with single doses of three oi more days’ supply of zinc oxide to dairy cows for facial eczema control. Experimental hand dosing of a single dose of zinc oxide (40 and 120 mg Zn/kg h wt) to Jersey cows caused a significant drop in serum calcium concentration at 24 h followed by a rise to concentrations higher than controls at subsequent samplings over four days. At the highest zinc dose rate, 78% of serum calcium values were equal to or lower than the lowest control value at 24 h post dosing. Serum magnesium concentrations had a reciprocal relationship to the calcium levels at all samplings. Serum zinc concentrations were most elevated over the 48 h post dosing, returning to normal levels at the fifth day. Following the highest zinc dose milk yields were reduced by approximately 1.5 kg milk/cow/day for 48 h. Similar results were obtained when cows grazed pasture on which large amounts of zinc oxide had been sprayed.     

An investigation of the safety of oral calcium formate in dairy cows using clinical, biochemical and histopathological parameters

AIM: To investigate the safety of orally administered calcium formate in dairy cows fed adequate amounts of good quality pasture. METHODS: Twelve mixed-age pasture-fed lactating dairy cows were randomly allocated to three groups (n=4 cows/ group). Group 1 served as untreated controls. Group 2 was treated orally with 400 ml of 13.4% (w/w) calcium as calcium chloride gel, four times at approximately 12-h intervals. Group 3 was treated orally with 350 ml of 11.4 % (w/w) calcium as a 48.6% aqueous suspension of calcium formate, four times at approximately 12-h intervals. Cows grazed good quality autumn ryegrass and white clover pasture throughout the trial. All cows were examined clinically each evening and a blood sample collected. Cows were slaughtered 75 h after the last treatment and viscera examined visually for lesions. Samples from the mid-fundic area of the abomasum of each cow were collected for histopathological examination. Blood samples collected pre and 90-h post-first treatment were analysed for serum haptoglobin and pepsinogen concentrations. RESULTS: No evidence of abnormality was detected by observation or clinical examination in any of the trial cows. Serum haptoglobin concentrations were basal for all groups pre-treatment and remained basal for Groups 1 and 3 post-treatment, but were elevated post-treatment for Group 2 (p=0.016). No differences in serum pepsinogen concentrations were detected between sampling times or treatment groups. One cow from Group 2 had several small (5 mm) abomasal ulcers present at necropsy. Another cow from the same group had histopathology suggestive of thrombosis and re-endothelialisation. CONCLUSIONS: Oral administration of calcium formate (350 ml of 48.6% aqueous suspension) administered on four occasions at 12-h intervals had no adverse effects on the four cows examined, and as such is considered a safe form of calcium supplementation in adult dairy cows.     

Changes in Plasma Progesterone Levels in the Caudal Vena Cava and the Jugular Vein and Luteinizing Hormone Secretion Pattern After Feeding in Lactating and Non-lactating Dairy Cows

The present study was designed to assess progesterone profiles at the secreted (caudal vena cava) and circulating levels (jugular vein) and luteinizing hormone (LH) secretion pattern in lactating and non-lactating cows with reference to feeding. Four lactating and four non-lactating cycling Holstein cows were examined. Blood samples were collected simultaneously from the caudal vena cava (via a catheter inserted from the coccygeal vein) and the jugular vein every 15 min for 12 h (0500–1700 h) during the functional luteal phase. Cows were fed 50% of the daily diet 6 h after the start of blood sampling. During the 12-h sampling period, mean progesterone concentrations in the caudal vena cava did not differ between lactating and non-lactating cows (49.0 ± 2.9 and 53.3 ± 3.7 ng/ml; mean ± SE), whereas mean progesterone concentrations in the jugular vein in lactating cows were higher than those in non-lactating cows (6.4 ± 0.1 and 5.6 ± 0.1 ng/ml, P < 0.001). Lactating cows had a higher frequency of LH pulses than non-lactating cows (7.0 ± 0.7 and 4.3 ± 0.9 pulses/12 h, P<0.05). The influence of feeding was not observed on LH profiles but was observed on progesterone profiles in both veins. Progesterone concentrations in the caudal vena cava increased after feeding in both groups. Progesterone concentrations in the jugular vein decreased after feeding in lactating cows but not in non-lactating cows. These results indicate the difference in feeding-related changes in progesterone dynamics between lactating and non-lactating cows.     

Nanosize of zinc oxide and the effects on zinc digestibility,growth performances,immune response and serum parameters of weanling piglets

The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of dietary supplementation of nanosize zinc on zinc digestibility, growth performances, immune response and serum parameters of weanling piglets. Ninety‐six LYD weanling piglets were assigned to control, zinc oxide (ZnO), organic‐Zn (Zn‐methionine) and nanosize ZnO (nano‐Zn) groups with four replicates. The zinc was at the 120 mg/kg level in the treatment group's diet, while the control group's was 80 mg/kg Zn. The experiment results indicated that the nano‐Zn and organic‐Zn groups had significantly higher Zn digestibility compared to the ZnO and control groups. For the immune response traits, the IgG level and goat red blood cells (GRBC) antibody titer were nano‐Zn and organic‐Zn>ZnO>control; in the phytohemagglutinin (PHA) challenge test result, nano‐Zn>organic‐Zn>ZnO>control; in regard to the γ‐globulin level, nano‐Zn and organic‐Zn>ZnO and control, with significant difference between groups. In the serum parameters aspect, serum Zn concentration in nano‐Zn and organic‐Zn groups were higher than in the ZnO and control groups, serum growth hormone concentration was increased in the nano‐Zn group than in the other groups. In conclusion, nanosize zinc oxide for dietary supplementation can increase zinc digestibility, serum growth hormone levels and carbonic anhydrase activity and enhance the immune response of weanling piglets.     

Effect of pre-calving zeolite, magnesium and phosphorus supplementation on periparturient serum mineral concentrations

The objective of this study was to test whether supplementing dry cow rations with phosphorus (P) and magnesium (Mg) would interfere with the beneficial effect of zeolite supplementation on the periparturient blood calcium (Ca) concentration in dairy cattle. Three groups (A-C) of 10 Danish Jersey cows were each given the following daily supplements from 2 weeks before the expected date of calving until actual calving: group A: zeolite, monoammonium phosphate, standard dry cow mineral and vitamin mix, containing 61g magnesium phosphate; group B: zeolite, standard mineral and vitamin mix without the magnesium phosphate and group C: standard mineral and vitamin mix, monoammonium phosphate. All cows in group B had an apparently less variable serum calcium concentration around calving with no cases of milk fever and no subclinical hypocalcaemia or hypomagnesaemia recorded. In contrast, a parturient drop in blood Ca was seen in group A as well as group C. In group A, one cow was hypocalcaemic at calving, and developed milk fever. In group C, 12 blood samples, representing six cows, were hypocalcaemic, and three of these cows were treated for milk fever. All groups remained normomagnesaemic and there were no significant differences in blood Mg across groups. In conclusion, the combined P and Mg supplementation in addition to zeolite supplementation did not increase the serum Mg level (forage Mg 16.9g/day; 0.21% of DM). Combined P and Mg supplementation reduced the zeolite-induced hypophosphataemia but also reduced the stabilising effect of zeolite on parturient serum Ca.     

Studies on pentagastrin-induced hypocalcaemia in lactating cows.

During recent years it has been evident that a number of gastrointestinal hormones are potent calcitonin secretagogues, and it has been suggested that a gastrointestinal-thyroid C cell system exists as a part of post prandial calcium homeostasis. In the present study the hypocalcaemic effect of pentagastrin, a synthetic peptide with gastrin effects, was studied in lactating cows. Intravenous infusion of pentagastrin caused marked hypocalcaemia and hypophosphataemia in the cows. Thyroidectomy completely abolished the hypocalcaemic and hypophosphataemic effects of the peptide. The results thus suggested that the effects of the peptide were due to release of endogenous calcitonin.     

Pathogenicity of two strains of Streptococcus uberis infused into lactating and non-lactating bovine mammary glands

Two strains of Streptococcus uberis, one (0140J) resistant to killing by purified bovine polymorphonuclear leucocytes suspended in milk and the other (EF20) readily killed by polymorphonuclear leucocytes were each infused into a mammary quarter of 18 lactating and 10 pregnant non-lactating cows. In the lactating cows 0140J produced clinical disease in 16 of 18 quarters whereas EF20 produced clinical disease in only two of 18 quarters. With the exception of three cows exposed to EF20, the quarters which resisted infection did so without apparent inflammatory reaction. In non-lactating cows both organisms produced clinical disease in six of 10 quarters. Two cows apart, a non-lactating udder was either resistant or sensitive to both organisms.     

The effect of dietary protein on reproduction in the mare. VI. Serum progestagen concentrations during pregnancy

Sixty-four Thoroughbred and Anglo-Arab mares aged 6-12 years were used, of which 40 were non-lactating and 24 lactating. Foals from these 24 mares were weaned at the age of 6 months. Non-lactating and lactating mares were divided into 4 dietary groups each. The total daily protein intake and the protein quality (essential amino-acid content) differed in the 4 groups of non-lactating and 4 groups of lactating mares. The mares were covered and the effect of the quantity and quality of dietary protein on serum progestagen concentrations during pregnancy was studied. A sharp decline in serum progestagen concentrations was recorded in all dietary groups from Days 18 to 40 of pregnancy, with some individual mares reaching values of less than 4 ng/ml. Serum progestagen concentrations recorded in some of the non-lactating mares on the low-quality protein diet increased to higher values (p < 0.05) than those of mares in the other 3 dietary groups at 35-140 days of pregnancy. A similar trend was observed for the lactating mares on a low-quality protein diet at 30-84 days of pregnancy. No such trends were observed in any of the other dietary groups. High-quality protein supplementation increased serum progestagen concentrations during the 1st 30 days of pregnancy. Lactation depressed serum progestagen concentrations until after the foals were weaned.     

Expression of parathyroid hormone-related protein (PTHrP) mRNA in mammary gland of periparturient cows

The expression of parathyroid hormone-related protein (PTHrP) mRNA was examined in mammary gland with or without lactation, and during periparturient period in a Holstein cow and a Jersey cow. In the lactating mammary gland, PTHrP was detected in alveolar epithelial cells and the lumen by immunohistochemical analysis. The relative expression levels of PTHrP mRNA in mammary gland from lactating cows were significantly higher than those from non-lactating cows (P<0.05). During periparturient period, relative PTHrP mRNA level was remarkably low before the parturition in a Jersey and a Holstein cow, however, both levels were gradually increased and reached a peak level at 5-6 weeks after the parturition. In addition, the peak level in a Jersey cow was approximately 3-fold higher than that in a Holstein cow. From these results, PTHrP was synthesized and secreted in alveolar epithelial cells in mammary gland and increased subsequently with the lactation, suggesting a possible mechanism for the regulation of local calcium homeostasis.     

Nutrient balance in the diet of spring calving, pasture-fed dairy cows

AIMS: To report the nutrient composition of pastures fed to spring-calving dairy cows in the Manawatu region of New Zealand, and describe changes in the nutrient composition of these pastures over a 12-month period. Having done this we sought to: (1) compare the nutrient composition of the pasture offered with the nutrient requirements of spring-calving dairy cows; (2) identify periods when individual nutrient surpluses and deficits are likely; and, (3) identify nutrients that demonstrate a high level of variability between sampling occasions. METHODS: Seven farms took part in the study. Each farm was visited monthly from August 1996 to July 1997. Samples of pasture were taken at each visit and submitted for estimation of dry matter (DM), metabolisable energy (ME), crude protein (CP), non-structural carbohydrate (NSC), neutral detergent fibre (NDF), acid detergent fibre (ADF), calcium (Ca), phosphorus (P), magnesium (Mg), sodium (Na), potassium (K), chlorine (Cl), sulphur (S), iron (Fe), copper (Cu) and zinc (Zn), and dietary cation-anion differences (DCAD). RESULTS: Sampled pastures were characterised by low to marginal ME, NSC, Ca, Mg, and Zn concentrations when compared with recommended dietary nutrient concentrations for lactating and non-lactating dairy cattle in New Zealand. Analyses revealed relatively high CP, NDF and K concentrations, and DCAD. CONCLUSIONS: These analyses identify broad trends in the nutrient balance of a pasture-only feeding regime and provide a useful reference for planning feed strategies for spring-calving, pasture-fed dairy herds in this region. Recommended changes to on-farm practice should be made after considering the whole farm system, rather than being made solely on the basis of perceived deficiencies or excesses of individual nutrients.     

Calving rates of Brahman and Brahman-cross cows to fixed-time insemination after treatment with pregnant mare serum gonadotrophin and intravaginal progesterone

In 2 experiments involving 151 non-lactating and 107 lactating Brahman or Brahman-cross cows, the effects of progesterone treatments (PRID) of 2 durations (7 v 14 days) and injections of pregnant mare serum gonadotrophin (PMSG) at 3 doses (O v 375 v 750 IU) were examined. All cows were inseminated with frozen/thawed semen 54 to 58 and 70 to 74 hours after PRID removal. Calving rates of non-lactating cows (38%) were unaffected by breed or treatment but were higher in previously cyclic than acyclic cows (44% v 19%, P less than 0.025) and in cows which exhibited oestrus after treatment (52% v 23%, P less than 0.001). Calving rates of lactating cows were not affected by these factors but were affected by treatment; PMSG produced no significant effect after a 7-day PRID treatment (33% overall) but increased calving rates after 14-day PRID treatments (22% v 46% v 37% for 0, 375 and 750 IU respectively, P less than 0.10). Comparisons of calving rates of lactating cows treated with 14-day PRID and PMSG and artificially inseminated, and untreated naturally mated cows, showed that treatment significantly increased the proportion of cows conceiving in the first 35 days of the mating period (50% v 23%, P less than 0.025). The results show that treatment with PRID for 14 days and PMSG can overcome post-partum anoestrus in lactating Brahman and Brahman-cross cows leading to significant reductions in the calving to conception interval.     

Selenium, vitamin E and vitamin A status in dairy sheep reared under different feeding systems in Greece

The main purpose of the study was to investigate whether the feeding system applied has any effect on the status of blood selenium (Se) and vitamins A and E in dairy sheep. In total 200 dairy sheep from 10 flocks were used in the study (20 animals per flock). Group A consisted of 100 sheep (five flocks) reared under the intensive feeding system and group B of 100 sheep (five flocks) reared under the semi-intensive feeding system. The 100 sheep of each group consisted of 25 lambs aged 3-6 months, 25 ewes 1-3 years, 25 ewes more than 3 years and 25 non-lactating ewes in late gestation. Another purpose was to evaluate the potential effect of the age and the reproductive stage of the animals on these parameters. To determine the effect of age, 150 of these animals were divided into three subgroups: 50 lambs, 50 non-pregnant lactating ewes aged 1-3 years and 50 non-pregnant lactating ewes aged more than 3 years. For the evaluation of the effect of the reproductive stage the 50 non-lactating ewes in late gestation and the 100 non-pregnant lactating ewes were used. Blood samplings were performed once, between December and January for non-lactating ewes in late gestation and March to May for lambs and lactating ewes. Whole blood Se and vitamin E and A serum concentrations were determined. The main conclusion is that the feeding system significantly affects Se and serum vitamin A concentration, as they were higher in the intensive one. It was secondly concluded that age affects the serum concentrations of vitamin A.     

Effect of additional vitamin E and zinc supplementation on immunological changes in peripartum Sahiwal cows

This study was conducted to exploit ameliorative effect of additional vitamin E and/or zinc supplementation on immune response of peripartum Sahiwal cows. Thirty‐two pregnant dry Sahiwal cows were blocked into four treatment groups (n = 8), namely control, zinc (Zn), vitamin E (Vit E) and zinc + vitamin E (Zn + Vit E). Feeding regimen was same in all the groups except that the Sahiwal cows in the zinc‐, vitamin E‐ and zinc + vitamin E‐fed groups were additionally supplemented with 60 mg Zn/kg DM, 1000 IU vitamin E and 60 mg/kg + 1000 IU Zn + vitamin E, respectively, from day 60 pre‐partum to day 90 post‐partum. Blood samples were collected on days ?60, ?45, ?30, ?15, ?7, ?3, 0, 3, 7, 15, 30, 45, 60, 90 and 120 with respect to day of parturition and analysed for total immunoglobulin (TIG), immunoglobulin G (IgG), interleukin‐2 (IL‐2), vitamin E (Vit E) and zinc (Zn) status. Before calving, cows showed a decrease in plasma TIG, IgG, IL‐2, Vit E and Zn levels. However, increased levels of plasma TIG, IgG, IL‐2, Vit E and Zn were observed after calving. After calving, Sahiwal cows supplemented with Zn + Vit E had higher plasma TIG, IgG and IL‐2 in comparison with cows of control and Zn + Vit E‐fed groups. In the present study, plasma vitamin E level was higher in Vit E‐fed and Zn + Vit E‐fed cows; however, zinc level was higher in Zn‐ and Zn + Vit E‐supplemented cows. In conclusion, a reduced immune response during peripartum period in Sahiwal cows was ameliorated by dietary vitamin E and zinc supplementation.     

Treatment of cows with milk fever using intravenous and oral calcium and phosphorus

Fifteen cows with milk fever were treated with 500ml of 40 % calcium borogluconate (group A) administered intravenously. Fifteen other cows with milk fever received the same treatment, supplemented with 500ml of 10 % sodium phosphate administered intravenously, and 80g calcium as calcium lactate and 70g inorganic phosphorus as sodium phosphate administered orally in drinking water. The cows were monitored and blood samples collected for 3 days to measure the concentrations of total and ionized calcium, inorganic phosphorus and magnesium and the activity of creatine kinase. The two groups did not differ significantly with respect to the course of the disease. In each group 14 cows were cured. A rapid and significant increase in serum calcium concentration from the hypo- to the hypercalcaemic range occurred in both groups within 10min of the start of treatment, followed by a slow and steady decrease to the hypocalcaemic range. Calcium lactate did not prevent the calcium concentration from returning to the hypocalcaemic range, and the calcium profiles of the two groups did not differ significantly. As expected, treatment had little effect on the concentration of inorganic phosphorus in group A. In group B, treatment caused a rapid increase in the concentration of inorganic phosphorus to a maximum 20min after the start of treatment. This was followed by a slow decrease in the phosphorus concentration to the normophosphataemic range. Our findings confirmed that combined intravenous and oral administration of sodium phosphate in cows with periparturient paresis attributable to hypocalcaemia and hypophosphataemia results in a rapid and sustained increase in serum phosphorus, but not in serum calcium concentration. This modified therapy did not improve the success rate of milk fever treatment and further studies are needed to improve treatment of periparturient paresis.