Plywood frame corner joints with glued-in hardwood dowels

This paper presents research on plywood frame corners jointed to glulam beams and columns by means of glued-in hardwood dowels. The frame corner was made of a solid block of ordinary plywood of the same width as the glulam beams and with plies parallel to the plane of the frame to avoid splitting due to stress perpendicular to the grain. Hardwood dowels with a diameter of 12mm and a maximum glued-in length of 120mm were glued into drilled holes in the plywood corner and glulam beam ends parallel to the grain direction of the beams to form a momentresisting joint. Static bending tests were conducted of frame corners with 100 X 200mm² and 120 X 420mm² beam cross sections. Bending capacities of the joints corresponding to a modulus of rupture of the jointed glulam beams of about 30MPa were obtained for both closing and opening moments for the small cross sections, and about 22MPa was obtained for the large cross sections. Simple design models for calculation of joint strength and rotational stiffness are also presented.     

Technological properties of glulam beams made from hydrothermally treated poplar wood

In this research, technological properties of glulam beams made from hydrothermally treated poplar (Populus deltoides) wood were investigated. Poplar wood blocks with dimensions of 6 (r)?×?10 (t)?×?73 (l)?cm³ were cut and hydrothermally treated in a stainless steel reactor at temperatures of 140 and 160°C for a holding time of 30?min. The treated wood blocks were initially air seasoned and then they were dried in a semi-pilot scale vacuum dryer to achieve moisture content (MC) of 12%. Conditioning of the treated and the untreated wood blocks was done prior to adhesive bonding. Afterwards the glulam beams (4 ply) were manufactured using polyurethane. In order to evaluate the physico-mechanical properties of the beams, density, equilibrium moisture content, water repellent effect (WRE), anti-swelling effect (ASE), mass loss (ML), wettability as well as surface roughness due to the hydrothermal treatment were determined in the treated wood and delamination, bond shear strength, tensile strength, MC and moisture-induced stresses as well as strains in cross-section of the beams were determined in the glulam beams. The results revealed that density, ML, ASE, WRE, modulus of elasticity, modulus of rupture and delamination were increasing and the others were decreased due to the hydrothermal treatment.     

不同防水涂层对竹集成材纵向吸水特性的影响

为开发环保、防水性能优良的表面防水技术,分别采用水性聚氨酯涂料(WPU)、聚偏二氯乙烯乳液(PVDC)、溶剂型氟碳清漆(FC)和疏水型防水剂(WPA)对竹集成材横截面进行浸涂处理,通过一维吸水试验,测试其纵向吸水系数、吸水速率、防水效率和水分分布等指标,以表征表面防水竹集成材的纵向吸水特性。结果表明:阻隔型PVDC乳液处理的竹集成材对水的接触角约为75°,防水效率最高,吸水量、吸水系数和吸水速率均为最低,用于竹集成材具有良好的防水潜力。     

Crack influence on load-bearing capacity of glued laminated timber using extended finite element modelling

Abstract

Most of the cracks are caused by changes in temperature and relative humidity which lead to shrinkage and swelling of the wood and thereby induce stresses in the structure. How these cracks influence the strength of the wooden structure, especially the shear strength, is not well understood. However, it is reasonable to expect that cracks have an impact on the shear strength as they preferably run along the beams in the direction of grain and bond lines. The purpose of this study was to investigate the load-bearing capacity of cracked glulam beams and to find a model that could predict the failure load of the beams due to the cracks. Three-point bending tests were used on glulam beams of different sizes with pre-manufactured cracks. An orthotropic elastic model and extended finite element method was used to model the behaviour of the cracked beams and to estimate the load-bearing capacity. The conclusions were validated by numerical simulations of the mechanical behaviour of three-point bending of glulam beams with different crack locations. The crack initiation load was recorded as the failure load and compared to the experimental failure load. The results of the compaction simulations agree well with the experimental results.     

Mechanical properties and their interrelationships for medium-density European hardwoods,focusing on ash and beech

ABSTRACT

The usage of hardwoods for engineered wood products, such as glulam, requires defined mechanical properties reflecting the actual tensile strength of the material. Currently, the European strength class system EN 338 only covers profiles for hardwoods tested in bending. In this study, the material properties of medium-density hardwoods are analysed with the focus on a total of 3663 European ash (Fraxinus excelsior) and European beech (Fagus sylvatica) specimens tested in different loading modes (tension, compression, bending, and shear). The relationships between the material properties—tensile strength, stiffness, and density—are analysed on grouped data of both graded and ungraded specimens. As a result, a tailored ratio of tensile strength to tensile MOE and density is given, which allows to utilize a higher tensile strength of hardwoods (f_t,0,k over 30?N/mm²) compared to softwoods. Furthermore, the relationship of the test values and the derived values is checked. The equations for deriving the compression and bending strength from tensile strength are verified based on available data. For tensile and compression strength perpendicular to the grain and for shear strength of both beech and ash, higher strength values than the ones listed in EN 338 are possible. The relationship between the mechanical properties are combined to tensile strength profiles for hardwoods.     

玄武岩纤维增强落叶松集成材胶合工艺的研究

对聚氨酯胶粘剂制造落叶松集成材/玄武岩纤维增强树脂(BFRP)的胶合工艺技术进行了研究.采用正交试验法考察加压时间、砂光处理、压力对落叶松集成材/BFRP胶合性能的影响并确定优化工艺参数.结果显示:试验的优化工艺参数为A3B2C1,即加压时间为4h,采用80目砂光处理和压力为1.2 MPa.     

多胺基聚合物改性室温固化型MUF树脂胶黏剂

为解决三聚氰胺-尿素-甲醛(MUF)树脂作为室外级结构集成材胶黏剂时存在的脆性大、易开裂的问题,得到韧性优秀且综合性能满足室外级结构集成材标准的室温固化型MUF树脂胶黏剂,本研究在MUF树脂合成中使用两种改性剂尿素-乙二胺(UE)、尿素-三(2-氨基乙基)胺(UD)分别替代部分三聚氰胺合成了MUF-UE、MUF-UD树脂胶黏剂。通过制备树脂拉伸试样以及胶合木考察改性后的MUF树脂的物理力学性能,借助DSC、DMA分析改性前后树脂的热性能,使用FT-IR、ESI-MS分析改性前后树脂的结构变化。试验结果表明:相较于未改性MUF树脂,MUF-UE树脂拉伸强度和断裂伸长率分别提高51.5%和30.8%,所制备胶合木剪切强度高达8.00 MPa,冷、沸水二次循环剥离率均为0%;MUF-UD树脂拉伸强度相比改性前会有所下降,但断裂伸长率以及胶合木剪切强度对比改性前有一定提高。结构分析表明,UE和UD能够参与MUF树脂合成反应并形成共缩聚产物,且不改变树脂体系中主要官能团结构。     

集成材及玻璃纤维增强复合材料的发展动态研究

通过对集成材、玻璃纤维增强复合材料的国内外研究历史及现状的概述,总结了研究成果,分析了其未来的发展趋势。研究结果认为,集成材作为优良建筑木构件材料将会得到广泛的应用,玻璃纤维增强复合材料具有广阔的应用前景和发展空间,木材与玻璃纤维等极性不同材料胶合机理、胶粘剂的开发、集成材的产品标准等方面的研究将是未来的发展方向。     

Mechanical response of wood perpendicular to grain when subjected to changes of humidity

This paper describes the deformations caused by stress and humidity interaction, mechano-sorption, in the cross grain directions of wood and the relaxation or accumulation of internal stresses caused by these deformations. Long-term tests on small clear specimens in cyclic climates with both tensile and compressive loads were carried out. The development of internal stresses in timber was measured indirectly at different times during the adsorption and desorption processes. Released deformations were measured from cross-sections after cutting them to small slices. These deformations were used to estimate the internal stresses caused by the humidity variations. Tests with constant loads and multiple humidity cycles show a mechano-sorptive strain that is ten times higher than the elastic strain. It is shown that existing models for describing mechano-sorption perpendicular to grain are inaccurate when applied to multiple humidity cycles. The present results demonstrate that if the mechano-sorptive behaviour and the moisture gradients in wood can be accurately described, it is possible to predict the stress distribution in a timber cross-section by knowing the climate history.     

胶合木桥的设计、制备及其结构性能试验研究

在做出设计方案,包括技术条件、设计规范、材料参数及桥梁选型等的基础上,利用通用有限元软件MIDAS／Gen对木桥进行了结构分析,主要的计算工况包括全跨活荷载、半跨活荷载及人致振动等。分析结果表明,该桥的应力水平及结构刚度等均满足承载能力及正常使用要求。同时简要介绍了胶合木加工工艺及木桥的装配过程,并且通过静力堆我试验对整桥进行了结构性能测试,试验结果与有限元分析结果吻合较好。     

Numerical and experimental study of moisture-induced stress and strain field developments in timber logs

When solid wood dries from a green condition to a moisture content used for further processing, moisture-induced fracture and stresses can occur. The drying stresses arise because of internal deformation constraints that are strongly affected by the cross-sectional moisture gradient differential shrinkage and the inhomogeneity of the material. To obtain a better understanding of how stresses develop during climatic variations, the field histories of stresses (and strains) in cross sections in their entirety need to be studied. The present paper reports on experiments and numerical simulations concerned with analysing the development of strains and stresses during the drying of 15-mm-thick discs of Norway spruce timber log. The samples were dried at 23 °C and relative humidity of 64 % from a green condition to equilibrium moisture content. The moisture gradient in the longitudinal direction was minimised by use of thin discs simplifying the moisture history of the samples studied. The strain field history was measured throughout the drying process by use of a digital image correlation system. Numerical simulations of the samples agreed rather well with the experimental strain results obtained. The stress results also indicated where in the cross section and when fractures could be expected to occur during drying. More optimal drying schemes showed markedly reduced stress generation.     

Distribution of stresses in finger joints

Summary This paper presents results of theoretical and experimental studies determining distribution of stresses in connected elements and the glue bond of the finger joint. In cross sections away from the beam joint, it was found that the distribution of stresses was consistent with the theory of the strength of materials. However, in the joint itself, there are irregularities in the distribution of tangential and normal stresses. These inconsistencies are bigger in the orthotropic solid than in the isotropic one. The dramatic stress distribution in the adherend also affected variations in the distribution of tangential stresses in the adhesive bond. Mean tangential stresses in the bond do not exceed the shear strength of the glue due to large surfaces of joining elements. However, concentrations of tangential stresses at bond's ends cause that acceptable stresses for the glue are exceeded. The general theory of strength of materials describes the state of stresses in the adhesive bond correctly only in the case of the isotropic solid.     

Study on Glulam Process

INTRODUCTIONGlulam (namely glued laminated lumber) is a kind ofproducts that are assembled by sawn lumbers or smallsquares laminated in grain directions and glued in thedirection of thickness, width and length with adhesives.Not only does glulam possess the same property asnatural wood does, but also can avoid some defects,such as warping, distortion, split, etc. As one kind ofthree main engineered wood products as laminatedveneer lumber (LVL) and I-beam, glulam is widely usedin construc…     

Effect of end-taping and removal of sapwood on radial distribution of moisture content and tangential strains during radio-frequency/vacuum drying of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Cedrela sinsensis</Emphasis> log cross sections

This study was carried out to investigate the effects of end-taping of sapwood (ETS) and removal of sapwood (ROS) treatments of log cross sections on the radial distributions of moisture content (MC) and tangential strain, according to the circumferential slicing method (CSM), during radio-frequency/vacuum (RF/V) drying of log cross sections. The MC of control and ETS samples showed an even distribution around the center but decreased closer to the periphery side. In ROS samples, the MC decreased closer to the periphery side when above the hygroscopic range but showed an even distribution at the late stage of drying. Tangential strain in ETS samples showed slight compressive stress or tensile stress through the entire area of the cross section during the initial stage of drying, although the periphery side was in tensile stress from an area starting at a relative radius of 0.7. ROS samples showed tensile stress in the heartwood around the center and the heartwood of the periphery side and showed no stress or slight compressive stress in the middle area at the initial stage of drying, after which it showed an even distribution of tensile stress throughout the entire end surface. About 90% of the total checks contained in ETS and ROS samples were observed on the periphery side starting from a relative radius of 0.7.     

Effect of lamellas annual-ring orientation on cracking of glulam beams investigated with computer tomography and image processing

Abstract

Cracks in glulam beams can reduce their strength, depending on the crack's depth, length, and location and can also be a passage for the accumulation of water and dirt. To avoid cracks, the relationship between cracks (area of cracks, mm²) and annual-ring orientation in glulam beams of spruce (Picea abies), and pine (Pinus sylvestris) with different dimensions and surface treatments was investigated using RGB images of the surface and tomography images of the cross-sections. Image processing was used to measure characteristics visible in the photos such as crack area and lamella position in the beam. Combination of lamellas in lay up was measured from computer tomography images. Four types of combinations were defined; type 1 (pith side facing outward), types 2 and 3 (pith to the same side), and type 4 (pith sides meet pith side). It was found that the area close to the glue line in the lamellas in combination type 4 is the most subject to cracking, whereas combinations of type 1 show the highest resistance to cracking. This means that type 4 should not be used in glulam beams, because the lamellas shrink apart from each other causing stresses and resulting cracks.     

Effect of external compressive load on tangential strain behavior in Japanese larch log cross sections during radio-frequency/vacuum drying

This study investigated the effect of a compressive load of 0.092 MPa on the history of the tangential strains in Japanese larch (Larix leptolepis Gordon) log cross sections subjected to external compressive load during radio-frequency/vacuum drying. The external compressive load of 0.092 MPa played a role in inducing cracking in the outer zone of the log cross section, combining with other tensile strains. However, it also played a role in reducing the heart checks in the core of log cross section when exerted on the cross section of log cross section.     

Study on the estimation of the strength properties of structural glued laminated timber I: determination of optimum MOE as input variable

There have been many attempts to predict the performance of glulam beams. Several approaches have been taken, from early empirical techniques to more sophisticated stochastic methods. In recent years, more emphasis has been placed on the modeling of material properties. Generally, the modulus of elasticity (MOE) has been used as a criterion of laminar strength for the prediction of glulam performance in the traditional models. Most of the current models are based on MOE that was measured using the long span test; that is, they account only for variability between pieces of lumber. Therefore, these models do not account for the variation of material properties within a given piece of lumber. Five methods were considered to choose the appropriate one that could effectively predict the performance of glulam in this study. Prediction of glulam performance was done by the transformed section method. MOEs measured with the five methods were applied to a strength prediction program to compare the actual test results and the predicted results. MOEs used as input variables are as follows: long span MOE of the static bending test, localized MOE of the static bending test, long span MOE of the stress wave test, localized MOE of the stress wave test, and MOE of the machine stress rating (MSR) test. Results of the localized test showed excellent signification compared to those of the long span test. The MSR method, when used as input variable, obtained the most approximate result, so it is considered adequate for predicting the strength of glulam.An outline of this paper was presented at the 48th annual meeting of the Japan Wood Research Society, Shizuoka, April 1998     

Prediction of bending properties for structural glulam using optimized distributions of knot characteristics and laminar MOE

This study established a prediction model for bending properties of glued-laminated timber (glulam) using optimized knot and modulus of elasticity (MOE) distributions of lumber laminate as the main input variables. For this purpose, knot and MOE data were investigated for all pieces of lumber that were prepared for glulam manufacturing, and statistical distributions of knot size, knot number in one lumber, and MOE of each laminate were optimized as distribution functions. These knot and MOE data were used as input variables in the prediction model for bending properties, and were also used in generating virtual glulam using the inverse transform method. Prediction of bending properties for glulam was carried out using the transformed section method, which is partially provided in ASTM D 3737 (Annex A4). Predicted values were compared with those from full-scale four-point bending tests for 60 six-layered glulams with 10 different laminar combinations. Finally, the allowable bending properties of glulam for each specific laminate combination were determined by calculating the fifth percentile of the modulus of rupture and the average modulus of elasticity from virtual test results of more than 1000 virtual glulams. From the results of this study, predicted bending properties for glulam and their distributions could be used for structural design in both allowable stress design and limit state design.     

木结构集成材自动上下料装备研究现状与展望

木结构用集成材作为现代木结构建筑的重要材料之一，主要用于制作建筑结构的承重构件。由于木结构用集成材外形尺寸较大、质量较重，存在着人工搬运效率低、劳动强度大等弊端。为提高木结构用集成材的加工效率，国内外设计开发了适用于木结构集成材自动上下料装备。文中针对木结构集成材自动上下料装备的关键核心技术——自动上下料、码垛装置、自动上下料码垛最优轨迹规划等技术研究进行综述，指出现阶段木结构集成材自动上下料装备研究存在的问题并提出未来发展趋势。     

结构用胶合木生产工艺研究进展

结合近年来结构用胶合木国内外研究现状, 从生产工艺角度出发, 归纳总结有关结构用胶合木结构的研究状况, 包括结构用胶合木生产标准、层板分等、指接等技术、胶层理论与胶种选择、胶合木增强材料对胶合木性能的影响等, 对我国今后结构用胶合木的研究提出进一步的建议。