Drip,drip, drip

A unique complication to castration is published in the preceding Case Report in this issue, whereby a 2‐year‐old Thoroughbred racehorse gelding suffered chronic haemoperitoneum weeks after standing castration. The causes and treatment of post castration haemorrhage are reviewed along with haemoperitoneum and the use of laparoscopy. Supplementary explanations are discussed.     

Evaluation of ‘Section‐Ligation‐Release (SLR)’ Technique Devised for Castration in the Stallion

A novel technique [Section‐Ligation‐Release (SLR)] was evaluated for castration in the horse. Clinical traits, serum testosterone concentrations after challenge with human chorionic gonadotrophin (hCG), and histopathological changes of the testicular tissue were assessed. Five stallions, aged 24–48 months, were castrated using SLR technique under general anaesthesia. Both spermatic cords in each stallion were exposed at the scrotal neck by two 5‐cm long incisions, followed by sharp dissection through the parietal vaginal tunic. Both vascular and non‐vascular structures in the cords were triple clamped, transected and ligated. Both testes were left in situ. Serum testosterone concentrations were measured pre‐operatively and at 2 months after castration following IV administration of 1 × 10⁴ IU of hCG. Both testes from each castrate were collected at 2 months for histopathologic examination. SLR castration was successfully achieved. Moderated scrotal and preputial swelling was the only experienced short‐term complication. Serum testosterone concentrations were significantly lower than basal pre‐operative levels at 2 months after castration, and did not respond to hCG. On histopathology, hyalinization of the seminiferous tubules and loss of testicular interstitial tissue were indicative of complete avascular necrosis. This novel primary closure castration technique of stallion is a simple practical method, with minimal post‐operative complications; and could be safely advocated as an alternative to the traditional castration techniques allowing for second intention healing of scrotal wounds.     

Ultrasonographic and morphological sequelae to repeated testicular biopsies in stallions in relation to the lateral branching of the testicular artery

The objectives of this study were to investigate the sequelae to repeated testicular biopsies in stallions and to determine if arterial injuries can be prevented. This study was part of a larger project focused on the antispermatogenic effects of an oral contraceptive compound, RTI‐4587‐073(l), which was given to 3 mature Miniature horse stallions, while another 3 received a placebo treatment. Testicular biopsies were taken once before treatment and 3 times after treatment. They were obtained from alternating testes, 2 procedures per testis, 2 samples each time, using a 18 gauge split‐needle core biopsy instrument (penetration depth: 22 mm). Colour Doppler ultrasonography was performed prior to the procedure to detect and thus avoid lateral branches of the testicular artery. Testicular parenchyma was evaluated ultrasonographically just before, and 2–6 h, 3 days and weekly after the biopsies were obtained. Changes in testicular volumes and semen parameters were monitored. All stallions were then castrated and the testes were evaluated for any gross pathology. There was no major scrotal swelling or gross haemorrhage after the procedures. Only mild, focal lesions were found in the testicular parenchyma 3 and 7 days after taking the biopsies. Three lateral branches of the testicular arteries were punctured, but there was no evidence of significant bleeding or other complications associated with these injuries. We conclude that repeated testicular biopsies may be taken from stallions without causing major complications, regardless of a presence or absence of the lateral branches of the testicular artery. Furthermore, we conclude that using colour Doppler ultrasonography to detect the lateral branches of the testicular arteries is unreliable; however, puncturing these vessels during a biopsy procedure does not necessarily result in significant haemorrhage.     

Unilateral testicular mastocytoma in a Peruvian Paso stallion

A 12‐year‐old Peruvian Paso stallion was examined for scrotal swelling and unilateral testicular enlargement of 4–6 weeks duration. Physical examination and ultrasonography of the scrotum revealed an enlarged, nonpainful right testis with a well encapsulated mass at the cranial‐medial aspect containing echodense flocculent material. Unilateral castration was performed and the testis, spermatic cord and vaginal tunic were submitted for histological examination, which revealed a mastocytoma with accompanying evidence of malignancy. Short‐term follow‐up examination did not reveal any evidence of abdominal metastasis and the stallion has since successfully achieved pregnancy in a small number of mares. Although considered rare, mast cell neoplasia should be considered as a differential diagnosis when unilateral testicular enlargement is encountered.     

Laparoscopic-assisted colopexy and sterilization in male dogs: short-term results and physiologic consequences

Objective: To describe laparoscopic‐assisted colopexy and sterilization, and evaluate outcome and effects in healthy male dogs. Study Design: Experimental study. Animals: Male Beagle dogs (n=7). Methods: A laparoscopic‐assisted, extracorporeally sutured colopexy, and sterilization by ligation and section of the testicular vessels and ductus deferens were evaluated 11 weeks after surgery. Ex vivo tensile tests were performed on the colopexy sites and loss of testicular function was assessed by monitoring serum testosterone, and by ultrasonographic and histologic examinations of the testes. Systemic inflammation and potential iatrogenic colonic functional disorders were investigated by monitoring serum C‐reactive protein (CRP) in the perioperative period and from a sulfapyridine (SP) kinetic profile obtained before and 10 weeks after surgery. Results: No intraoperative complications were recorded and clinical outcome was considered fair in all dogs. A mean tensile force of 42 N was required to disrupt colopexies. No relevant postoperative increase in CRP concentrations or changes in SP kinetics were observed. Testicular function was lost. Conclusions: Laparoscopic‐assisted colopexy achieved adhesion of the colon to the abdominal wall and testicular endocrine function and spermatogenesis were eliminated by laparoscopic castration.     

Bilateral leiomyoma in the testes of a horse

A 19‐year‐old Hackney pony was referred to a veterinary teaching hospital for further investigation of left‐sided scrotal enlargement. Both testes were normally positioned within the scrotum and there was no pain on palpation. Ultrasonography revealed multiple masses of soft tissue echogenicity, located adjacent to the testicular parenchyma. They were hyperechoic when compared to the testicular parenchyma and affected both testes. Surgical excision was performed by closed castration. Gross examination revealed firm, white, nodular masses of varying size on the surface of both testes. The cut surface of individual masses had a dense, whorling, fibrous and somewhat shiny appearance. The histopathological diagnosis was bilateral, multicentric, well differentiated leiomyoma of the tunica albuginea. The smooth muscle origin was confirmed by immunohistochemical staining with an anti‐human monoclonal antibody reactive to smooth muscle actin. This is the first report of a bilateral, multicentric, leiomyoma in the testes of a horse confirmed by histopathology and immunohistochemistry. This case highlights that neoplasia should be considered as a differential for bilateral testicular enlargement.     

Extratesticular interstitial and Sertoli cell tumors in previously neutered dogs and cats: a report of 17 cases

Primary neoplasms derived from testicular tissue and in an extratesticular location are extremely rare. Clinical and surgical information was collected and verified from 15 different submitting practices for 12 dogs and 5 cats that spontaneously developed neoplasms of testicular origin after castration. Eleven dogs had Sertoli cell tumors in an extratesticular location. One dog and all 5 cats had an extratesticular interstitial cell tumor. Six animals (1 dog, 5 cats) had developed secondary sexual characteristics that reversed after removal of the tumor. All had a palpable mass in the scrotum or at the site of the original prescrotal incision. No animals died of neoplasia-related disease and no metastases were identified. Several possibilities, including the presence of embryological ectopic tissue or the presence of testicular tissue transplanted during castration, are considered as causal.     

LHRH Fusion Protein Immunization Alters Testicular Development, Ultrasonographic and Histological Appearance of Ram Testis

This study was designed to evaluate the effectiveness of a luteinizing hormone releasing hormone (LHRH) fusion protein immunization on reproductive traits in ram lambs including the changes in histology and ultrasonographic appearance of testis. Thirty native ram lambs at 19 weeks of age were divided into control (C, n = 10), immunization (I, n = 10) and castration (E, n = 10) groups. Animals in immunization group were immunized against LHRH using ovalbumin‐LHRH‐7 (OL) protein generated by recombinant DNA technology as a primary and a booster injection at 19 and 23 weeks of age respectively. Animals were bled via jugular venepuncture at 2‐week intervals to determine LHRH antibody and testosterone concentrations. Bi‐weekly ultrasonographic examination of the testes was performed to determine the changes in ultrasonographic appearance as the age increased. Biopsied testicular tissues taken at 19, 29 and 41 weeks age were also evaluated. At 41 weeks of age, animals were slaughtered. Semen and epididymis were evaluated for the presence of sperm cells. Testicular development and sperm production were suppressed in the immunized animals. Semineferous tubule diameters decreased, basal membrane of the tubule was thickened and hyalinized in immunized ram lambs. While testes of control animals gained their normal ultrasonographic appearance as the age increased, immunized animals had uniform hypoechogenic testicular structure as observed at 19 weeks of age until slaughter. Simultaneous histological and ultrasonographic evaluations indicated that the changes in testicular histology could partly be monitored via ultrasonographic imaging. Nevertheless, it is difficult to claim that ultrasonographic image reflects the exact changes in such instances. In conclusion, these results indicate that recombinant OL fusion protein is effective in immunocastration in ram lambs and has a potential to be used as an alternative to physical castration. Further research studies should be conducted to help assess reproductive status of testes from ultrasound images.     

Clinical and Pathological Findings of a Sac‐like Formation in the Tunica Vaginalis of a Nelore (Bos indicus) Bull

A seven‐month‐old purebred Nelore calf was diagnosed with a bilateral finger‐shaped swelling although more prominent at the left side of the scrotum, located longitudinal and parallel to epididymis corpus. The finding was present from 7 months of age up to castration (performed at 25 months of age). Scrotal circumference, testicular and epididymis consistency and symmetry as well as seminal quality were normal during the follow‐up period. The ultrasonographic appearance of the scrotal wall, pampiniform plexus, gonad and epididymis was normal. However, an anechoic region surrounded by a wall forming a sac‐like structure with a blind end at its dorsal pole was seen on the swelling area. The examination of fluid aspirated from the saccular contents revealed the presence of mononuclear cells mainly from lymphocytic and histiocytic type as well as some loosing degenerated mesothelial cells. Gross examination at castration revealed a blind sac‐like appendix derived from an evagination in the parietal layer of the tunica vaginalis. The structure of approximately 5.0 cm in length extended from the dorsal edge of the epididymis cauda. No adherences with surrounded tissues were observed. Histopathology of the sac wall showed a smooth inner surface composed by scarce mesothelial cells forming in some areas papillary‐like projections protruding to the vaginal cavity. Underneath, a thick layer of fibrous tissue mixed with collagen fibres and mononuclear inflammatory cells were seen. The potential consequences of this saccular formation at an older age in a bull are unknown.     

Laparoscopic intra-abdominal ligation of the testicular artery following castration in a horse

A 364-kg (800-lb) 1-year-old mixed-breed horse was admitted for treatment of uncontrolled bleeding after castration. Multiple attempts to ligate the testicular artery through the scrotal incisions prior to referral had been unsuccessful. Because of the owner's concerns about cost, an attempt was made to control the bleeding by applying pressure to the inguinal region and administering formalin IV. However, hemorrhage continued. A decision was made to use laparoscopy to ligate the testicular artery. The horse was anesthetized and positioned in dorsal recumbency, and a routine ventral laparoscopic approach was used. The horse recovered without further complications. Laparoscopy should be considered for ligation of the testicular artery in horses with uncontrolled bleeding after castration.     

Testicular changes observed in boars following experimental inoculation with pseudorabies (Aujeszky''s) virus.

Four boars were inoculated intranasally with pseudorabies virus to determine if microscopic testicular changes occurred as a result of infection. Testicular biopsies and semen samples were taken at two, four and six weeks postinoculation and the boars were castrated immediately after the last sample collection. Testicular samples and semen were cultured to determine if the virus was present. Pseudorabies virus was not isolated from the semen or testicular tissue. Virus was isolated from trigeminal ganglia at necropsy and from nasal swabs taken one day after castration. Consequently, a time of high risk for shed of the virus from clinically normal carrier animals is immediately following castration. Gross changes were not observed in testicular tissues and microscopic changes in the testicles were the result of biopsy. Lesions consistent with pseudorabies virus infection were observed in the central nervous system of all inoculated boars. Temporary lowered fertility may result from the effects of elevated body temperature on spermatogenesis during acute clinical disease. However, it appears that the strain of pseudorabies virus used, lacked the ability to infect and/or replicate in the boars' reproductive tracts.     

Simultaneous presence of a seminoma and a leiomyoma in the testes of a horse

An 18‐year‐old stallion was presented for castration because of insidious, bilateral scrotal enlargement of one year's duration. The left testis was firm, while the right was soft and lobulated; both were larger than normal. Palpation of the scrotum and its contents did not cause the horse to show signs of discomfort. Ultrasonography of scrotal contents revealed abnormal, heterogeneous tissue with ill defined regions of hyper‐ and hypoechogenity throughout both testes. Several hours after admission the horse developed severe signs of colic. On the basis of anamnesis, clinical findings, and results of ultrasonography and transrectal palpation bilateral testicular neoplasia and incarcerated inguinal hernia were tentatively diagnosed. Because the horse's owner did not consent to surgical treatment, the stallion was subjected to euthanasia. Histological and immunohistochemical examination of the testicular tissue collected post mortem revealed a seminoma in the left testis and a leiomyoma in the right testis. The post mortem examination also revealed incarceration of the small intestine in addition to the testicular tumours. To our knowledge, this is the first report of the simultaneous presence of bilateral, yet different testicular tumour types in a stallion.     

Endocrine and sperminogenic testicular function. 8. Relationships between testicular and plasma testosterone concentrations as well as between the number of Leydig cells in testicular tissue and their cell nucleus volume in boars of different ages]

Testicular tissue and blood samples (V. spermatica interna) were taken from 32 boars during castration. The animals were different age groups. Against this background, studies were conducted into the correlations between testicular and plasma testosterone, on the one hand, and the amount of interstitial cells of Leydig in testicular tissue as well as the latters' cell nuclei volumes, on the other. The results seemed to support the conclusion that any age-dependent increase of testicular and plasma testosterone concentrations was caused unambigously by an absolute increase in volume of androgenic testicular tissue, in concomitance with testicular growth, in other words, by rise in the total number of interstitial cells of Leydig.     

Comparison of the use of a braided multifilament transfixation suture for field castration with other castration techniques

Complications with castrations occur commonly and are usually not life-threatening, with the exception of evisceration or haemorrhage, which are uncommon. Primary closure castration (closing deeper tissue layers and skin) or use of a transfixation ligature alone to prevent evisceration has been recommended. The goal of this study was to investigate the use of a closed technique with multifilament suture for transfixation of the spermatic cord alone in field castrations. The results of this study support our hypothesis that a closed castration technique with a multifilament, transfixing ligature (No. 2 polyglactin 910) did not result in additional post-operative complications when compared with a closed castration technique without ligature placement or a primary closure castration technique in a hospital setting.     

Effect of intratesticular injection of lidocaine on cardiovascular responses to castration in isoflurane-anesthetized stallions

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the effect of intratesticular administration of lidocaine on cardiovascular responses and cremaster muscle tension during castration of isoflurane-anesthetized stallions. ANIMALS: 28 healthy stallions (mean +/- SD age, 4.2 +/- 2.8 years) with no testicular abnormalities that were scheduled for castration. PROCEDURE: Each horse was given acepromazine (20 microg/kg, IM), romifidine (50 microg/kg, IV), and butorphanol (20 microg/kg, IV). Anesthesia was induced with ketamine (2.5 mg/kg, IV) and midazolam (50 microg/kg, IV) and maintained with isoflurane (1.7% end-tidal concentration). After 10 minutes at a stable anesthetic plane, a needle was placed in each testicle and either no fluid or 15 mL of 2% lidocaine was injected; 10 minutes after needle placement, surgery was commenced. Pulse rate and arterial blood pressures were measured invasively at intervals from 5 minutes prior to castration (baseline) until 5 minutes after the left spermatic cord was clamped. The surgeon subjectively scored the degree of cremaster muscle tension. In 2 horses, lidocaine labeled with radioactive carbon (C(14)) was used and testicular autoradiograms were obtained. RESULTS: Compared with baseline values, castration significantly increased blood pressure measurements; intratesticular injection of lidocaine decreased this blood pressure response and cremaster muscle tension. In 2 horses, autoradiography revealed diffuse distribution of lidocaine into the spermatic cord but poor distribution into the cremaster muscle. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: In isoflurane-anesthetized stallions, intratesticular injection of lidocaine prior to castration appeared to decrease intraoperative blood pressure responses and cremaster muscle tension and may be a beneficial supplement to isoflurane anesthesia.     

Increased germ cell loss rates and poor semen quality in stallions with idiopathic testicular degeneration

Five mature stallions with poor semen quality were tentatively diagnosed as having testicular degeration of unknown cause. Testis samples from these five stallions, and from three mature stallions with normal semen quality, were obtained by castration and prepared for histomorphometry. Increased germ cell loss rates during late meiosis and spermiogenesis occurred in the stallions with idiopathic testicular degeneration. Poor semen quality, represented by a low percentage of morphologically normal, progressively motile sperm in ejaculates, appeared to be a good predictor of testicular degeneration in these stallions.     

Laparoscopic‐assisted diagnosis of anomalous unilateral abdominal cryptorchidism

This report describes an unusual case of unilateral abdominal cryptorchidism in a Shetland pony. On the cryptorchid side, no testicular structures were present in the inguinal area but testicular/epididymal remnants at the distal end of a pedunculated structure could be discerned in the abdomen at laparoscopic examination. Furthermore, the deferent duct was disconnected from the epididymal remnants and the deferent duct was visible at the caudal aspect of the bladder, traversing over the lateral ligament of the bladder into the vaginal ring where it ended blindly in the vaginal process. After laparoscopic removal of the testicular/epididymal remnants and castration of the contralateral normally descended testicle, the hCG stimulation test was negative and the pony no longer exhibited masculine behaviour.     

Endocrine and sperminogenic testicular function. 7. Relationship between testicular and plasma androgen concentrations in boars of different ages]

Testicular tissue and blood samples (V. spermatica interna) were taken from 32 boars during castration. The animals were of different age groups. Against this background, comparative studies were conducted into the relationships between testicular and plasma testosterone. A very close correlation was found to exist between the androgen values in testicular tissue and those in the blood plasma of V. spermatica interna (r = 0.9795), wich appeared to support the conclusion that by determination of blood plasma the androgen content in the testes can be established with high probability.     

Haemophilia A (Factor VIII deficiency) in the cat

A case of haemophilia A (classical haemophilia, factor VIII deficiency) in a cat is described. The cat presented with persistent bleeding from an oral wound, and protracted haemorrhage after castration. The diagnosis and management of this case is described. Subsequent investigation of the dam and a recent litter identified a further affected male kitten.     

Acute and Chronic Effects of a Contraceptive Compound RTI‐4587‐073(l) on Testicular Histology and Endocrine Function in Miniature Horse Stallions

The objective of this study was to evaluate acute endocrine effects as well as histological changes in testicular parenchyma induced by the contraceptive compound RTI‐4587‐073(l). Six miniature stallions were used in this experiment. The treatment group (n = 3) received one oral dose of 12.5 mg/kg of RTI‐4587‐073(l), and the control group (n = 3) received placebo only. The stallions' baseline parameters (semen, testicular dimensions, endocrine values) were collected and recorded for 5 weeks before treatment and for 6 weeks after treatment. Multiple blood samples were collected for endocrine analysis. Testicular biopsies were obtained before treatment, 1 day after treatment and every other week after treatment. Ultrasound exams were performed to monitor the dimensions of the stallions' testes. All stallions were castrated 6 weeks after treatment. Sperm numbers, motility and percentage of morphologically normal sperm decreased (p < 0.05), while the number of immature germ cells increased in ejaculates from treated animals (p < 0.05). Serum concentrations of inhibin and follicle‐stimulating hormone did not change. Testosterone concentrations initially transiently decreased (p < 0.05) after administration of RTI‐4587‐073(l), and increased several days later (p < 0.05). Testicular content of testosterone and estradiol 17‐β was lower in treated stallions than in control stallions on Day 1 after treatment (p < 0.05). Severe disorganization of the seminiferous tubules, significant loss of immature germ cells and complete depletion of elongated spermatids were observed in testicular biopsies obtained from treated stallions 1 day, 2 and 4 weeks after treatment. These changes were still present in the testicular samples taken from treated stallions after castration. The results of this study confirmed that RTI‐4587‐073(l) has antispermatogenic effects in stallions. Furthermore, we concluded that this compound causes acute sloughing of immature germ cells from the seminiferous tubules. RTI‐4587‐073(l) has significant but transient effects on Leydig cell function in stallions.