中西方历史灾荒成因比较研究

灾荒的发生主要与灾害的严重程度和社会对灾民的救助有关。通过对比研究中国和古代欧洲国家之间灾荒的发生演变情况,结果显示中西方灾荒的发生具有显著的原因差别:中国的灾荒主要是由于社会救助不力造成的,在原因层面属于弹性灾荒;欧洲的灾荒主要是因为灾害的强度导致的,属于刚性灾荒的范畴。     

中国古代救荒书研究综述

近年来,学术界在对中国古代救荒书的认识和整理、研究方面作了具有学术价值和现实意义的探索,并在救荒书的概念界定、古籍整理、分类研究、著者研究,救荒思想研究、救荒减灾技术研究等诸多方面取得了一定的成果,形成颇多论著。但是,由于受史料的分散零乱以及灾害学学科分化不完全等因素的制约,救荒书的专题研究尚处起步阶段,唯考其成果,多呈单篇独段,鲜有全面深入的宏卷巨帙,今后迫切需要加强对中国古代救荒书的系统化研究。     

Uneasy sacrifice: The politics of United States famine relief, 1945–48

The United States, which committed itself to alleviating the severe post-World War II global famine, failed to meet its relief commitments. Relief efforts failed largely because voluntary attempts at reducing consumption proved too difficult, and the U. S. government refused to return to mandatory rationing of food despite evidence indicating the majority of Americans, especially American women, would have welcomed such a move. Contributing to officials' opposition to mandatory post-war rationing were the revived ideology of government non-interference; a strong government/agriculture alliance; the focus on private, as opposed to public, interests and obligations; and increasing Cold War tensions precluding any worldwide efforts at famine relief. It seemed only the fear of Communist takeover could provoke Congress in partnership with business interests into sufficiently alleviating famine conditions, but only for those countries willing to abide by U. S. terms.     

近代西方人对“丁戊奇荒”的认识及其背景——《纽约时报》传达的信息

"丁戊奇荒"是晚清时期一次百年罕见的灾荒,前后持续达四年之久,造成了惨重的后果。长期以来,国内学界主流观点多认为请政府的腐败无能和赈灾不力是造成"丁戊奇荒"伤亡严重的主要原因,而当时以《纽约时报》为代表的西方媒体则将注意力更多地集中于中国基础交通设施的落后,并对清政府的赈灾措施给予了一定程度的肯定。     

Management of famine relief

We have, over the course of time, made discoveries in compassion as well as discoveries in technology. Many problems that had been judged insoluble in the past are no longer tolerable. For many centuries, starvation was inevitable, largely because means of information and means of transportation were not at hand; the fact that there usually was more food available somewhere else on the same or another continent was irrelevant. There was no way of hearing of the famine, bringing the food where it was needed, or distributing it. We now have the knowledge to install early warning systems based on economic and on medical surveillance (8). Such data as weather reports, crop forecasts, food reserves and retail prices, height-to-weight ratios, skin fold thicknesses, and height-to-arm circumference ratios in children can warn us in advance of impending famine. We also now have the means to transport the food to the area of threatening or actual mass starvation. Therefore, we have obligations that did not exist in past generations. We are now also in a much smaller world from which some of our contemporaries have stepped out to look at the spaceship on which we are all traveling. The worldwide civil rights revolution of the 1960's has brought about greater realization that all human beings are born equal and must be preserved and helped. All this means not only that we must organize to prevent famines on a worldwide basis, but also that we must use the most modern technology to do so. The fact that famine often occurs in remote areas is no reason why we cannot use computers and other modern technology. The very need for programming computers, with the planned coding and feeding of data that it entails, not only forces preparedness but also obliges planners to examine responses to various contingencies. National and international training courses for policy-makers and managers of famine relief should follow. Even if mankind brings its resources and its population into balance, a sound organization of famine relief preparation will still be needed to cope with local contingencies. Rapid agricultural advancement, development of innovative food sources, and, above all, control of population growth are necessary if famine is not to stalk all of mankind in the future.     

试论北洋政府全国防灾委员会的防灾思想及对策

全国防灾委员会是北洋时期考察灾荒原因,研究防灾对策的中央防灾机构。委员会在兴修水利、贮粮积谷、移民垦荒、发展农村经济以及与民间义赈团体合作等方面提出了诸多有建设性的主张,并做了大量工作,在某种程度上推动了北洋时期防灾救荒以及农业、农村的发展。虽然由于财政匮乏、战事多发、吏治腐败等各种因素,制约了其防灾对策的社会和经济绩效,但其中一些防灾思想和对策对我们今天灾荒防治和“三农”问题仍有启迪和借鉴作用。     

齐鲁奇荒的一九二七年

近代山东省曾出现过多次自然灾害,其中发生在1927 年的荒灾甚为严重,对当地人民的生命财产造成了巨大损害。为深入了解该时期山东省灾害,笔者综述了1927 年农业荒灾的暴发对山东民间形成的破坏。在匪患兵灾的背景下,官方及社会团体的相关救灾减灾活动难以完全到位,以致挽救人民生命、保护生产力、恢复社会经济的重任不能真正完成。该灾难造成惨痛的教训,警示人们不要忘记这段历史。     

西方新教传教士与晚清山东赈灾述论

西方新教传教士自1860年来山东传教后，面对近代山东灾荒频发的局面，在基督教博爱精神与普世主义指引下，积极投身于山东灾荒救济。特别是在“丁戊奇荒”与1889年山东灾荒期间，李提摩太、倪维思、狄考文等众多传教士相互合作，不辞辛劳，到处募集捐款，分头赈灾，发放赈银救助了大量灾民，并提出了许多预防灾荒的建议。尽管传教士赈灾存在传播上帝福音，吸引灾民入教的目的，也有救助地域的局限，但他们的这些活动对拯救濒于死亡边缘的灾民、促进中国赈灾机制近代化转型与中国早期现代化，仍有值得肯定之处。     

宋代荒政的历史考察和经济分析

主要对宋朝的荒政思想进行了历史考察,阐述了该时期荒政思想和措施的主要特色,并对赈济中存在的弊端进行了经济学分析.     

秦汉时期农业减灾救荒思想研究

秦汉时期农业减灾救荒思想已呈现体系化的特征,它包含农业灾害预防思想、农业减灾思想和农业救荒思想三大部分。中国古代的减灾和救荒两大思想体系由此成为有机整体,研究这一时期的农业减灾救荒思想对于后世的防灾减灾工作具有一定的借鉴意义。     

新中国成立初期黔东南地区救灾度荒的历史考察——以积谷政策为例

新中国成立初期,黔东南地区灾荒是经常性和普遍性的,党和人民政府继续推行设仓积谷政策,积极开展救灾度荒,取得了明显成效。积谷政策的推行对赈灾救荒、发展农业生产、稳定农村社会秩序及巩固新生的人民政权都发挥了非常重要的作用,在政治上和经济上有着积极的意义。     

《逸周书·大匡》所载荒政措施述论

《逸周书·大匡》篇以“文王宅程”的历史为背景,历经春秋、战国,又增益了新的思想文化内涵,而形成如今的文献面貌。这篇文献历时性地演绎了“周文王”在程邑时,针对一次大灾荒,从粮食政策、商业流通、礼仪行用三个主要方面,制定积极有为的处置措施,立体化地呈现了先秦时期人们应对荒政的经验和智慧,具有一定的理论价值和现实意义。     

汉晋至北朝时期黄河流域大豆种植面积变化

汉晋至北朝时期,黄河流域大豆种植面积发生一定的变化。西汉时期,黄河流域大豆种植面积相对战国时期大为下降,由主食逐渐变成副食;东汉时期,黄河流域大豆种植面积逐渐扩大,到了北朝时期,又出现禾菽并重的地步。这种变化出现的原因是气候变冷,导致饥荒时常发生,而大豆比较耐旱耐寒,扩大大豆种植面积,有利于老百姓渡过饥荒。     

清代以工代赈捐纳筹资与社会力量的动员

透过清代以工代赈捐纳筹资的演变过程可以看出,兼具救荒与兴修工程双重功效的以工代赈的资金来源,除了赈捐、河工捐这些暂行事例外,还有常例。在清代公开的国家制度保障下,运行数百年的捐纳制度,为遇到临时的或长期的财政困境的朝廷动员社会力量筹集以工代赈资金提供了保障。有清一代,捐纳资金为朝廷顺利实施以工代赈提供了程度不等的持久的正向支撑力,帮助朝廷履行灾荒赈救职责,修复灾毁急要险重工程,吸纳最具潜在不稳定因子的青壮年灾贫民到工劳动,化解社会危机。即使在光绪初年以民捐民办为突出特征的义赈兴起之后,清廷仍旧通过诸种措施增加捐纳资金,用于兴办工赈,强撑起了官赈的“面子”。评价捐纳制度的利弊得失,应以其社会效果为基本标准,而不是简单地斥其为滋弊的温床。     

Famine edema and the mechanism of its formation

Famine edema was produced experimentally in 34 normal men who lost a quarter of their body weight while subsisting for 6 months on a European type of semi-starvation diet. The ratio of extracellular water to cellular tissue was roughly doubled. Their clinical state closely resembled that seen in Europe in 1945. There were no signs of renal or cardiac failure. The plasma protein concentration fell only slightly and the A/G ratio remained within normal limits. The venous pressure was roughly 50 per cent below normal. Data from the field lend support to these indications that famine edema is not simply a result of hypoproteinemia or of renal or cardiac failure. It is concluded that there is a dynamic nonequilibrium state of the capillary wall and, accordingly, calculations from equilibrium equations are inadmissible.     

A "prolife" population delegation?

The White House has been circulating drafts of a controversial position paper to be presented at the August 1984 United Nations world population conference in Mexico City. The paper dismisses population growth in developing countries as a cause of unemployment, illegal migration, or famine, and asserts that population programs are no substitute for ending government controls that stifle economic growth. It also contains a strong statement against abortion, states the U.S. position against coercion in family planning, and declares the Reagan administration's resolve not to fund programs advocating abortion. The U.S. stance is expected to antagonize developing countries and isolate the United States at the U.N. conference.     

清前期苏北地区的水利与饥荒

分析了康熙年间苏北地区水利修建的状况,列举了当时苏北农业受灾和政府赈灾的数据,在此基础上得到兴建水利未能从根本上使苏北农民摆脱饥荒的成胁。     

Gender,ecology, and the science of survival: Stories and lessons from Kenya

Sustainable development and biodiversity initiatives increasingly include ethnoscience, yet the gendered nature of rural people's knowledge goes largely unrecognized. The paper notes the current resurgence of ethnoscience research and states the case for including gendered knowledge and skills, supported by a brief review of relevant cultural ecology and ecofeminist field studies. The author argues the case from the point of view of better, more complete science as well as from the ethical imperative to serve women's interests as the “daily managers of the living environment”. In the interests of both objectives the paper advocates an ethnoscience research approach based on empowerment of rural people, rather than simple extraction of their knowledge. The Kenyan case study of women's agroforestry work follows their response to the drought and famine of 1985 and chronicles the unfolding discovery of women's ecological, political, and social science as gendered survival skills. The case is re-counted as a story, in keeping with an explicit choice to learn through participation and to report through storytelling. The experience of rural women and researchers during the drought provides several lessons for both groups about their respective knowledge systems, their agroforestry work, and the relationship of both to local and national political economy.     

魏晋南北朝时期的果品及其功用

先秦时期的典籍中就已经出现了大量有关果品的记载。果品不仅具备食用价值,还承载着丰富的文化内涵。随着农业科学技术的持续提升,魏晋南北朝时期果品种植的面积持续扩大,种植技术不断成熟,种植品类日益繁多,产品初加工和深加工能力增强。果品在饥馑灾荒年代可以充当主食饱腹,可以调节味道增添层次,果树既具备观赏价值,又可以作为经济作物提供经济效益。此外,果品还可以在社会生活中发挥作用,促进社会交往与文化交流。果品可用以彰显社会地位,可用以交际交流,可用以表达观点抒发情感,可用以下酒醒酒以避世。果品丰富的生活和社会功用使它在魏晋南北朝时期得到更广泛的开发和利用,并持续发展至今。     

Crisis management: some opportunities

Modern crises present decision makers with many agonizing management choices. Very often a crisis manager is confronted with a plethora of conflicting information and given very little time to choose an appropriate course of action. Although contemporary methods of systems analysis have been used in attempts to organize data and clarify options, they have generally been of little use in presenting an accurate picture of an opponent's values and perceptions. Thus it is clear that we must now make use of the improved communications and technological devices at our disposal if crises are to be avoided or resolved with minimum damage. Our proposal to establish international model-oriented computer-assisted conferences is designed to promote greater cooperation and understanding among scientists and crisis managers of differing nations by enabling them to share images of themselves and one another. With better information and more rational options available, the chances of catastrophic misunderstanding or miscalculation can be meaningfully reduced. We have proposed a possible scenario for the initial implementation of such a system to combat famine, and hope that the same approach might be used in other areas over time. The ultimate goal is a system by which specialists of all persuasions cooperate so that international crises will be resolved on the bases of mutual benefits without resort to armed conflict.